THE 

CATHOLIC 
CITIZEN 





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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



BY 

/■' i 

JOHN A/^LAPP, LL.D. 

AUTHOR OF "THE FUNDAMENTALS OF CITIZENSHIP," 

"OUR AMERICA," "THE CIVICS CATECHISM," 

"LEARNING TO EARN," ETC. 



j^ehj Pork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1921 

All rights reserved 



MW (Bh&tat 



ARTHUR J. SCANLAN, S.T.D., 

Censor Librorum. 



imprimatur 



October 24, 192 1 



^ PATRICK J. HAYES, D.D., 

Archbishop of New York. 



M'' 



t 



A 



Copyright, 1921, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 192 1. 



NOy 30 '2 



Printed in the United States ot America. 



§)C!.A630510 



■> I, ^. k 



Catholic Patriotism 

I swear to support the Constitution of the United States. I pledge 
myself, as a citizen and Knight of Columbus, to enlighten myself 
fully on my duties as a citizen and to conscientiously perform such 
duties entirely in the interest of my country and regardless of personal 
consequences. I pledge myself to do all in my power to preserve the 
integrity and purity of the ballot and to promote reverence and respect 
for law and order. I promise to practice my religion openly and con- 
sistently, but without ostentation and to so conduct myself in public 
affairs as to reflect nothing but credit upon our holy Church to the end 
that she may flourish and our country prosper to the greater honor 
and glory of God. 

Oath of the Knights of Columbus. 



The Parish School Department views with laudable pride the effec- 
tive assistance of the Catholic elementary school system in every 
activity designed to plant in the lives of school children, a deeper and 
holier appreciation of the privileges and dignity of American citizen- 
ship. Conscious, too, of the effects of a sound moral training under 
rehgious sanction, it rejoices in the unfailing contributions which 
Catholic education is continually making to preserve our national ideals 
in the minds and hearts of our future; citi^^ns. 
Resolution of the Parish School Department of the Catholic Educational 

Association, June 26, igiQ. 



INTRODUCTION 

The purpose of this book is to set forth the essential facts 
of American citizenship and of the civic and social problems 
with which the citizen must deal. It is dedicated by its title 
to the millions of Catholic citizens who take their full part 
in performing the duties of American citizenship and thereby 
help to solve the problems which confront the people of this 
land. 

Wherever possible, representative Catholic opinions and 
declarations are cited to show the value of moral and reli- 
gious backgrounds for citizenship and to emphasize the 
unity of our common efforts for civic and social betterment 
and the good of the country. 

The ideal of citizenship herein expressed is the promotion 
of fair play, justice, and square dealing for all people. 
Governments are instituted for these purposes and religion is 
a powerful ally in the cause. When men apply to pubHc 
affairs the same rules of moral conduct which govern their 
personal relations, and when they think of the moral duties 
and responsibilities as well as the rights of the citizen, we 
shall approach the realization of our ideal. 

The study of the rights and duties of citizens is a matter 
of universal interest and concern in a democracy where 
decisions are made by the votes of the people upon which 
may turn the national fate. No one rightly can be indif- 
ferent to the knowledge of government when his vote may 
decide issues important to the welfare or even the safety of 
the country. 

While the study of government is essential for all, it is 
especially valuable for youth who are looking forward to 



viii INTRODUCTION 

the duties of citizenship. If the schools are to aid youth in 
preparing for citizenship they must place the subject in the 
grades before the high school. Students of the grammar 
grades can readily grasp the simple principles and prac- 
tices of government and will respond readily to the ideals 
of fair play, justice, and square dealing — virtues which 
appeal to all youth in games and sports and why not in the 
larger relations of civic life? 

The author has drawn freely upon "The Fundamentals of 
Citizenship" and "The Civics Catechism" prepared by him for 
the National Catholic Welfare Council. Several chapters 
are revised and enlarged from the former publication. 

J. A. L. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 
CHAPTER 

I. Working Together for the Good of All .... i 

II. Justice and Fair Play 7 

III. Common Welfare and Protection i4 

IV. Representative Government 2a 

V. Our American Government 25 

VI. The People's Rights • • 3^ 

VII. Choosing Public Officers 39 

VIII. Making Laws 4 

IX. Carrying ON THE People's Work 56 

X. The Work of the Courts 65 

XL Dealings with Other Countries 71 

XII. The Defense of the Country 77 

XIIL The Citizen's Part ^''• 

XIV. Education ^^ 

XV. Health Protection ^°^ 

XVI. Charity AND Good Works . ^^^ 

XVIL "Delinquency AND Correction i^S 

XVIIL Unfair Practices • • ^^5 

XIX. Thrift AND Savings ^^i 

XX: Saving Natural Resources .• ^3^ 

XXI. Rural Problems ^45 

XXII. City Problems ^^i 

XXIII. Transportation ■ 

XXIV. Capital and Labor ^^9 

XXV. Money * ^^^ 

XXVI. Banks and Banking ^^ 

XXVII. Insurance • • * ^^^ 

XXVIII. Taxation • 

XXIX. Immigration AND Naturalization 211 

ix 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Appendix 

Declaration oe Independence 221 

Constitution of the United States 225 

Books for Comparative Study 243 

Index 245 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

CHAPTER I 
WORKING TOGETHER FOR THE GOOD OF ALL 

The world is made up of individuals, and each individual 
is gifted by the Creator with the position and dignity of a 
human being. He receives a body to preserve and protect; 
a mind to guide his actions; and an immortal soul. The 
individual is charged with solemn duties by these gifts. He 
is expected to labor; to educate his faculties; and to prepare 
himself for his immortal destiny. 

Individuals are destined to live with others in the family 
and in the community. Men associate by choice with their 
fellows. Few people would prefer to live as hermits away 
from others of their kind, even if they could. They live 
and work together and enjoy mutual pleasures and benefits. 

The Home. — Each individual is born a member of a 
family, and each member owes a duty to the family. The 
parents owe support and care to the children, and the 
children owe obedience to the parents. All work together 
for the good of the whole family and enjoy the benefits of 
love and affection, and of food, clothing, shelter, and 
enjoyment. The home is made possible by the full coopera- 
tion of parents and children and is happiest when each 
member does his part. The home has rules and customs 
which the members of the family obey. 

The Community. — Individuals and famihes together 
form the community. The community brings all together 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



for the common benefit. The community does for all what 
individuals and families cannot do by themselves. 




© Ewing Galloway 



A Large City 



This busy corner in Newark, New Jersey, shows the 
activities of a large city. By properly enforced rules 
confusion is lessened. 

It is because people live and work together in com- 
munities that arrangements are necessary to provide for the 
common good and protection of all. Those arrangements 
we call government. The purposes of government are to 



WORKING TOGETHER FOR GOOD OF ALL 3 

provide for protection against enemies and evils; prevent 
interference with the rights of each; promote fair play 
and justice; and carry on activities for the common benefit. 
The people band together to resist an enemy, to protect 
themselves against thieves, and to safeguard their property 
against fire. The people also protect the rights of each 
individual against interference by other individuals in 
safeguarding hfe, property, and freedom for each; and in 
securing fair play and justice to all. The people combine 
also to provide for those things needed by each, such as 
roads and schools, which can be provided only by a number 
of people acting together. It should be made clear at 
the outset that the acts which the community performs for 
the individual should be those only which the individual 
cannot readily do for himself. 

The Idea of Government. — Government can be better 
understood if we imagine a hundred famihes living in a com- 
munity far away from all other people. Suppose that these 
hundred families lived on farms and had entire control of 
their own affairs. What measures would they be likely to 
take for their common benefit? Each person could not pro- 
vide his own private road, or his own private school. All 
would be likely to cooperate in building a road for the gen- 
eral use and a school for the education of the children. Each 
family could not provide for its own protection against wild 
beasts or bands of robbers or savages, so all would unite to 
provide for the necessary protection. Each person could 
not readily protect himself from the interference of other 
members of the group. His property might be stolen, his 
land seized, or his life might be endangered. Since each 
would be subject to the same danger, the members of the 
community would make rules to prevent such evils. They 
would arrange to settle disputes, and provide for the 



4 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

punishment of offenders against the rules which they had 
made. 

If these hundred families lived in a village instead of on 
farms, there would be many additional things which they 
would need for mutual protection and benefit. They would 
need protection against the dangers of disease and fires; 
they would need water supplies, sidewalks, and paved 
streets. They would need to be sure of their food supply 
and that the food was pure; they would need places for 
play; they would also need rules to prevent accidents. 
Every community, whether city or country, would find 
it necessary to have some form of government to manage 
the common affairs of the people. 

We see from these examples that government performs 
duties for the common good. It protects the rights of 
individuals and families and does many things for the 
benefit of all. Individuals benefit by common action which 
provides facihties for their safety and for the protection of 
their life, property, and freedom. 

Duties of Individuals. — The benefits which men receive 
from associating with their fellows naturally require a return 
on the part of each individual. It is not fair to receive 
benefits and give nothing. If roads are built for the advan- 
tage of all people, it follows that each person should help 
build and maintain them, or help pay the cost. If police and 
fire departments are maintained for mutual protection, then 
each person owes to the whole people a share of the cost. 
If each person derives protection for himself from laws which 
prevent interference with his property or liberty, he owes 
something for the benefits thus received. It is clear that men 
should not seek benefits supplied by the common purse 
without doing their share in return. When the duty of the 
individual to do his part is so clear, a person must be 



WORKING TOGETHER FOR GOOD OF ALL 5 

considered a drone who would fail to do his share. If we 
think of the whole work of government in our country as 
a mutual enterprise for the benefit of all people, we can 
readily see that each person should bear a fair proportion 
of the labor and the expense. 

What are some of the duties which the individual owes 
for the benefits which he receives from the community of 
which he is part? He should, first of all, realize his debt / 
and give devoted service to the community in payment. 
He should take part in community work by helping to 
choose with great care those who are to carry on the work 
of the community. He should be prepared himself to 
assume any duties to which the people may call him. He 
should pay his fair share of the cost of government and do 
his proportion of the common work. He should always 
strive for honest management of the people's affairs. 

People provide for many of their needs by voluntary 
arrangements which are not a part of the government. 
The people of a religious faith provide for churches in which 
they may worship, or schools in which their children may 
be educated. Groups of people may provide by agreement 
for conveniences, such as a clubhouse, for the benefit of 
members. In such arrangements, each person is expected 
to bear his share of the cost. The agreement in such cases 
is voluntary and a person may join or not, as he pleases. If 
he accepts the benefits, he is in honor bound to bear his 
share of the expense. 

As a member of society, every person must obey the rules 
laid down. He is compelled to pay a share of the cost, 
whether he wants to or not. Society recognizes that it is 
only fair that every person should help pay for the benefits 
which he receives. A man may move out of any given 
community, state, or nation, but he merely moves into 



6 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN . 

another, where he is still bound by the duty of doing his 
part for the protection of his life and property, and for the 
promotion of the common welfare. As long as he remains 
a citizen of a community, state, or country, it is his duty 
to obey the rules and comply with the requirements which 
are formulated for the welfare of all. 

Questions for Review 

What are the duties of the individual? 

Why do individuals live with their fellow men? 

What are the duties of the members of the family? 

Why do individuals join with their fellows in doing certain things? 

What are some of the things which individuals unite to do? 

Why should each person do what he is able to do for himself? 

Should the community do for an individual what he might readily 
do for himself? 

Should a person receive the benefits of the community without 
making a return? 

How can a person make return for the good he receives from the 
community? 



CHAPTER II 

JUSTICE AND FAIR PLAY 

The highest purpose of government is the promotion of 
justice and fair play for all people. These are the corner / 
stones of the American democracy. 

The Declaration of Independence says: "All men are 
created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain unahenable Rights, that among these are Life, 
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure 
these rights, Governments are instituted among Men." 
The Constitution of the United States declares one of its 
purposes to be "to establish justice." 

The spirit of justice and fair play is the spirit of religion. 
In government it is the golden rule put into practice in 
the relations of people to each other. It is the recognition 
of divine guidance in the precept: "Whatsoever you 
would that men should do to you, do you also to them." 

The Promotion of Fair Play.— The American people are 
devoted to the promotion of equality of rights and oppor- 
tunities for everybody with special privileges to no one. 
In the game of hfe, as the people in America like to play it, 
''the rules shall be the same for all; the penalty shall be 
the same for all; the prizes shall be open to all, and let 
the best man win." 

The striving for justice and fair play is expressed in 
many ways. We see it in the efforts to give every man an 
equal chance; to provide common advantages for all; in 
the protection of personal property and liberty of each, 
regardless of his station in life; we see it in the attempts 

7 



8 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



to settle justly the disputes between man and man; and 
in the humane care of the unfortunate who have suffered 
from disasters such as sickness and accident. Again we 
see it in the safeguards to protect from injustice those 
accused of crime; in the promotion of honest methods of 
business, for the prevention of frauds, monopolies, and 




© Keystone View Co., Inc. 



A Close Decision 



The umpire decides whether the base runner is safe. The players 
must obey the rules and abide by his decision. 



special privileges. And finally we see it in the attempts to 
make the whole system by which our wants are supplied 
work to the advantage of all. 

Fair Play and Sports. — Fair play is well illustrated by 
examples from the field of sports. It would be impossible 



JUSTICE AND FAIR PLAY 9 

to have any game without fair play as its basis. A base- 
ball game would have no interest to players or spectators 
if unfair decisions were made or if players were allowed to 
play unfairly. The students of a school soon learn to 
despise the one who cheats in play or who does not play 
the game squarely. They dislike the person who does not 
do his full share to win the game or who seeks to get undue 
advantage or praise for himself. So powerful is the senti- 
ment for fair play that policemen are scarcely needed to 
keep the line at the ticket ofhce or entrance to the field. It 
would be extremely dangerous for any one who would seek 
to break into the line ahead of his turn. These ideas of 
fair play, if carried into the affairs of the community, state, 
or nation, would soon bring fair play and the square deal 
into all public affairs. 

Equal Opportunity. — Perhaps the best evidence of our 
desire for equal rights is seen in the chance which is given 
to every one to realize the best there is in him, and to suc- 
ceed in the world to the best of his abihty. Children may 
be born in poverty, and yet rise to the highest station in 
society, and in public or business affairs. Abraham Lincoln 
was born in poor circumstances and rose to the highest 
position in the government and in the esteem of the people. 
Cardinal Gibbons likewise rose to the princely position 
which he held in the Church and in the regard of his fellow 
countrymen. Andrew Carnegie became the master business 
man of the age although he was born poor. Moreover, these 
men were not given the advantages of schools which are now 
enjoyed by all. The school system — public, parochial, and 
private — now places the means of training within reach of 
every one, and provides not only for general education, but 
for preparation for trades, professions, or business pursuits. 
The chance for an education is given not only to the youth 



/ 



lo THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

in schools, but also to those ^vho ha\e started to work. 
Niglit schools, part-time silu>ols, aiul correspondence 
classes bring education within the reach of those who may 
be compelled to work. Special scholarships are given to 
help \vorth>' students, livery person, young and old, 
hnds somewhere the chance to train himsch for a useful 
occupation or profession. Even those who are crippled 
are given a chance to be trained for some particular kind of 
work in order that they may make use of the faculties they 
have left. 

Common Welfare and Protection.- So that all may 
share in the bcnctits of government, the connnunity pro- 
vides numerous things for the common good. These are 
advantages for the great body of pec^ple, because they could 
not provide such things each for himself. The rich might 
provide schools for their children, water supplies, parks and 
playgrounds, and e\en roads for their own benefit, but the 
great mass oi people nmst depend upon the action of the 
Comnumit\' to secure these hcutMits. The rich might also 
provide guards and police for their property and health 
protection for themselves and their families, but the mass 
of people nuist depend upon the community to provide 
these important things. 

Settling Disputes. — Another wa>' in which the commu- 
nitv promotes fair play is by pro\iding means to settle 
disinitcs cn-cr propert>- or personal rights. We do not per- 
mit the strong to cheat and oppress the weak, nor do we 
permit the property of the weak to be taken by the strong 
or crafty. The con\nmnit\- pro\idcs courts ot justice by 
which disputes may be settled with fairness to all. 

Honest Trade. Eair play is secured also by the numerous 
methods used to prevent dishonest men from robbing 
people bv crafty methods. Laws are passed which prevent 



JUSTICE AND FAIR PLAY ii 

the use of short weights and measures, and which prevent 
the sale of impure articles; laws which prevent one man or 
a few men from controlling things which the jxHiplc must 
have for their livmg; and laws which make it easier to get 
the goods which people need through the process of dis- 
tribution, are all means by which fair play is promoted by 
and for the great body of our people. 

Fair Play to Persons Accused of Crime. — We extend the 
idea of fair play to those who are charged with crime. 
Every one in this country is considered innocent of a crime 
with which he may be charged until he is proven guilty. 
This is one of the highest expressions of fair play. A 
person accused of crime has the right to a speedy and 
honest trial before a jury of his fellow men. He may com- 
pel the attendance of witnesses in his favor and have legal 
assistance furnished for him if he is unable to pay. He is 
released from jail on bail until his trial comes up, except in 
the more serious crimes where the evidence is strongly 
against him. He may not be tried a second time for the 
same ofTense if the jury has set him free. Laws cannot be 
passed to fix or increase a punishment for an act after it 
has been committed. He may also appeal his case to the 
higher courts. Altogether these and other protections tend 
to prevent the great injustice of convicting and punishing 
a man who is innocent. Even after conviction for a crime 
the man is given a chance in many instances, through 
probation and parole, to make amends for his conduct and 
to become again a useful member of society. 

Fair Play and Dependents. — The principle of fair play 
is seen at its best in the care which is given to those who 
have sulTered from some misfortune or disaster and are 
unable to take care of themselves. The spirit of fair play 
causes us to try to find an opportunity for every person 



12 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



who is in difficulty and to care for those who are perma- 
nently disabled. Everywhere in this country the sick are 
provided for by the people of the community, the church, 
or the state. The helpless aged are also provided for. The 
insane, feeble-minded, and other dependents are given 
the best of scientific care. Dependent children are not 




H. F. Guenin 



Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum 



Modern children's homes provide playrooms and playthings for the 
children. The well equipped playroom in this New York orphanage 
is especially attractive. 



deprived of the chance which belongs to all, for the com- 
munity and the church make provision for their care and 
welfare. 

Questions for Review 

Why do our people seek to promote justice and fair play? 

Do we mean by the statement, "all men are created equal," that 



JUSTICE AND FAIR PLAY 13 

all men are alike physically and mentally or that all have equal rights 
and opportunities? 

Mention ways in which the people secure and promote fair play. 

How is fair play shown in the field of sports? 

What does fair play in sports illustrate for the conduct of public 
oflScers? 

What is done to provide equal opportunity for all? 

Can we do more to help a person than to give him an equal chance 
with others? 

What should we do for those who are handicapped? 

Why is it fair play and justice to provide for such enterprises as 
roads, at public expense? 

If there were no means of settling disputes, would people act fairly 
toward others? 

Why does the promotion of honest trade help fair play and justice? 

How is fair play assured to people charged with crime? 

How is fair play assured to the unfortunate? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Give examples from the field of sports to show how rules and umpires 
promote fair play. 

Give examples of the equal opportunities afforded to all people 
for education; for protection; for recreation. 



CHAPTER III 
COMMON WELFARE AND PROTECTION 

What does the government do for the people to promote 
their welfare? We need to know in order that we may 
value our government more nearly at what it is worth to us. 
There is no doubt that, if each person could measure the 
value of the things which are done for him, he would give 
more ardent support to the government. 

General Welfare.- — The people acting through their gov- 
ernment provide many things for common use which the 
individual could not provide for himself. The individual 
could not build highways, streets, or bridges for himself, but 
working together the people provide free roads, streets, and 
bridges for all at a very small expense to each. The money 
needed for these things is raised by taxation placed upon all. 

Not many famihes could provide for the education of 
their children by private tutors. A large number of people 
provide for schools through their churches, but to supply 
the needs of all, the government builds schools, colleges, 
and libraries for rich and poor alike. Equal advantages are 
thus given to all. 

The individual in the city could not provide parks and 
playgrounds for the health and recreation of himself and 
family. The city acting for the people preserves and 
beautifies great tracts of land for their comfort, health, 
and recreation. 

Each city dweller could not provide for the removal of 
ashes, garbage, and waste which he creates. All of the city 
dwellers acting through the government readily provide 

14 



1 6 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

sewer systems and garbage-disposal plants for the removal 
of waste. The individual farmer in a flat country could 
not provide by himself for the drainage of his land. If he 
should dig the necessary ditches he might harm his neigh- 
bors' land. All the farmers acting through the government 
provide for the building of great drainage systems which 
successfully drain the lands of all. The same is true of 
irrigation. One farmer or a few farmers could hardly build 
the necessary reservoirs and irrigation canals; the govern- 
ment, however, can build and maintain them for the benefit 
of all. The individual shipowner could not build docks 
and wharves, dredge rivers and harbors, or build hght- 
houses; but the government does all these things for the 
common benefit. 

Many people receive the benefits of hospitals and benevo- 
lent institutions which are provided by religious or other 
organizations. All who need such help would not receive 
it except by the action of the government in providing 
liberally for the care of the sick, dependent, and disabled. 

Farmers could not, single-handed, make the necessary 
experiments with crops and soil to improve agriculture. 
If they did the benefits could not readily be made of use 
to the people generally. The government acting for all 
provides support for agricultural experiment stations and 
publishes the results obtained so that all may profit by the 
use of the improved methods. Experiments of many kinds 
are carried on by various departments of the government 
which individuals could not possibly do for themselves. 

The individual could not by himself have the advantages 
of the postal system, including the city and the rural 
deliveries. The government provides for postal service 
to the most remote regions as a service to all and at the 
bare cost of performing such service. 



COMMON WELFARE AND PROTECTION 17 

Common Protection. — The individual would be helpless 
also in protecting himself and his property if he did not 
have the cooperation of others through the government. 
The people as a whole provide for an army and navy 
because no individual could possibly protect himself from 
the invasion of his land by enemies. The individual must 
protect himself by union with his fellow countrymen. 




© Press Illustrating Service 

Mail by Airplane 

Regular air mail routes have been established by the Post Office 
Department between some of the larger cities throughout the country. 



Provision for fire and police protection would be of little 
effect if each person had to look out for himself. The 
people acting together prevent fires by requiring safe 
building, compelling the removal of rubbish, and by pro- 
viding for fire departments at public expense. The govern- 
ment provides also for the prevention of forest fires and for 



i8 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

their control. Likewise, in protecting themselves from 
thieves and robbers, the people cooperate to employ police, 
constables, and other guards. 

The individual is helpless to prevent the spread of dan- 
gerous diseases, but through cooperation the people may 
provide for the prevention of disease and the control of 
epidemics. The water supply or milk supply would spread 
typhoid and other dangerous diseases if the government 
did not provide for tests, inspections, and close supervision. 
The spread of plant and animal diseases, and insect pests 
would also go unchecked, with great harm to the people, 
if it were not for the government agencies which study and 
control such diseases and pests. 

Clever frauds would also go unchecked if it were not for 
the action of the government. Food might be adulterated, 
drugs might be worthless, fertilizers might be cheap dirt, 
and cattle feeds might have no food value, through clever 
frauds, if the government did not provide laboratories for 
testing such products to determine their purity and worth. 

The examples given will be sufficient to show how helpless 
the individual is when acting by himself, but how powerful 
he becomes when cooperating with his fellow men through 
government. 

Questions for Review 

Why should we know what the government does for the people? 

Name some of the things which the individual could not provide 
for himself. 

How could roads and streets be provided without government? 

Show what the city does for the individual which he could not do 
for himself. 

Show what is provided for the farmer which he could not readily 
provide for himself. 

What are the evils against which governments provide protection? 

Show why government is necessary to provide armies, navies, police 



COMMON WELFARE AND PROTECTION 19 

forces, fire departments, forest protection, insect pests, animal 
diseases, epidemics. 

Explain why the people protect water and food supplies. 

Why are public laboratories necessary to test the purity of goods? 

Show why people must combine to prevent frauds. 

Questions tor Community Studies 

Name the things through which the government helps the individual 
in your community. 

Give all the ways in which the individual is protected by the 
government in your community. 



CHAPTER IV 
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 

The individual cannot do the actual work of running the 
common affairs, because if he did he would be employed a 
large part of the time, and therefore would have little 
opportunity for his own private pursuits. Since all men 
must make a living and strive for the betterment of them- 
selves and their families, they cannot give a very large part 
of their time to public work unless, of course, they are 
specially employed by the pubKc. 

Since they cannot do the work themselves the people 
select individuals to do it and pay them as hired workers. 
The persons thus chosen are the representatives of the 
people who select them. They owe special duties of faith- 
fulness to the wishes of those who trust them by choosing 
them as their representatives. 

What is a Representative? — The idea of representation is 
simple. It can be easily illustrated by examples. An 
individual who has business in a distant place may send 
some one to look after it with authority to act for him. The 
man who is sent is a representative. Ten men, who have 
business in a distant place, or to which they cannot con- 
veniently give attention themselves, employ some one as 
their agent or representative to act for them. People in a 
community who have work to do for the common benefit 
select representatives to do it. Any person who is selected 
to act for others is a representative 

Kinds of Representatives. — Representatives are elected 
by the people to look after the work which is done for the 



REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 21 

benefit of the people. The people select different represen- 
tatives for various kinds of work. Each representative is 
given certain duties to perform. To make the rules or laws 
which regulate the affairs of the community, representatives 
are elected to city councils,, state legislatures, and the Con- 
gress of the United States. These representatives assemble 
and have the power to speak for the people in deciding 
what laws shall be made for the city, in the city council; for 
the state, in state legislature; and for the nation, in Congress. 

Another kind of representative does the actual work of 
carrying on the public affairs. Representatives of the 
people manage the public works, the police and fire depart- 
ments, the army and navy, the post office, public schools, 
libraries, roads, streets, and the many other agencies for the 
common benefit. 

A third kind of representative engages in the work of 
settling disputes between people and of deciding whether 
persons who are charged with the act are guilty of breaking 
the laws. These representatives are the judges of the 
courts, whose duty it is to see that ail persons have fair 
play and justice, and that each person shall be honest with 
all the rest. 

Whether the person is selected by the people to make laws, 
to carry on the people's work, or to decide differences 
between individuals or between individuals and the com- 
munity, he is a representative of the people. 

Representative government may be defined as a govern- 
ment in which the people's affairs are managed and con- 
trolled by representatives chosen by the people for that 
purpose. 

Selection of Representatives. — Representatives are se- 
lected either through election by the people, or appointment 
by some other official. An elected representative is one 



REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 23 

whom the people quahfied to vote select as their choice 
by ballot. An appointed representative is one who is 
selected or hired by some other representative. The 
governor of a state and the mayor of a city are' elected by 
the people and they appoint other officers. These officers, 
in turn, may select and hire other assistants. 

Duties of Representatives. — It is the duty of a represen- 
tative to do as those who select him want him to do. The 
representative who is selected to make laws is in duty bound 
to make such laws as the people want. As a representative, 
he is trusted with a solemn duty by those who select him. 
He cannot do as he alone wishes, for he is elected to speak 
for those whom he represents. All representatives are in 
honor bound to be faithful to the wishes of those who have 
trusted them as their representatives. 

A representative may try to convince the people that 
they are wrong on any matter. He may find that he cannot 
agree to carry out their plans when he believes them to be 
wrong; but he must prove that he is right, or the people 
are likely to choose some one else who will do what they 
want him to do. A representative will strive to learn what 
his employer, the people, wants him to do, just as the 
representative of an individual will find out what his em- 
ployer desires of him. If he finds that his employer wants 
him to do things which his conscience does not approve, he 
may refuse and put the matter up squarely to his employer 
to decide. In public matters a representative always does 
this when he asks the people to reelect him. The people 
may then decide whether they approve his actions or not. 

Questions for Review 

How do the people do their work? 

Why cannot the people do their common work themselves? 



24 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

What is a representative? 

What is representative government? 

How are the officers and workers chosen who do the people's work? 

Is a representative free to do as he pleases? 

Suppose a representative thinks he is doing wrong in carrying out 
the wishes of the people, is he in that case in duty bound to follow the 
people's wishes? What should he do? 

How many different kinds of representatives do we select in this 
country? 

What does a representative in the legislature do? 

Who does the people's work of providing roads, schools, etc.? 

Who settles disputes between people? 

How can the people approve or disapprove the work of a repre- 
sentative? 

Should the people be able to discharge their representatives and 
employees? 

Questions tor Community Studies 

Name all the kinds of work done by representatives of the people 
in your community. 

Find out how the representatives who do the work of the community 
are chosen. 



CHAPTER V 
OUR AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 

The American Government is a representative govern- 
ment. The people choose their own representatives to 
make the laws by which they are governed, and under 
which they manage their own affairs. They choose repre- 
sentatives to carry on works and services of common benefit, 
and others to settle justly the differences and disputes 
between people. The American Government is called a 
repubhc, the term meaning, in common use, a representa- 
tive government. The government is, in fact, a democracy. 
This means that it comes from the people through repre- 
sentatives whom they choose, and directly when the people 
decide questions by ballot. It is a democracy, because the 
government is controlled by the people. 

The Organization of American Government. — The 
American government came into being in 1776 when the 
Declaration of Independence was signed. The declaration 
was brought about principally because the people objected 
to being taxed and governed without their consent, and 
without having representatives in the EngKsh Parliament. 
The nation thus began with the idea that the people should 
have a voice in their government. 

When the Declaration of Independence was signed the 
thirteen colonies immediately organized state governments 
according to the representative form. Each of the states 
adopted its own constitution and government. There were 
thirteen separate governments, each acting for the people 
of a state. Five years later the thirteen states entered into 

25 



26 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



an agreement to work together under the Articles of Con- 
federation, but each state kept full authority over its own 
affairs. There was no central government with power to 




Independence Hall 

The Declaration of Independence was signed in Philadelphia 
in this historic building which has been preserved to this day. 



control any part of the people's affairs within the states. 
The state government was the only one which really had 
power. 



OUR AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 27 

The Formation of the Constitution. — When the Revolu- 
tionary War was over and the EngHsh troops had been 
withdrawn, the thirteen states, each a separate government, 
became more and more independent and jealous of each 
other. It looked for a time as though no union could be 
formed. Finally, however, a convention of representatives 
from all the states was called to consider especially the 
question of trade between the people of the different states. 
In this convention, which was headed by George Washing- 
ton and which met in Philadelphia in 1787, the Constitution 
of the United States was framed. 

The purposes of the Constitution are set forth in the 
Preamble, which every citizen should learn by heart: 
''We, the people of the United States, in order to form a 
more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote 
the general welfare, and secure the blessing of liberty to 
ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution." No better statement of the purposes of 
government than this can be found anywhere. 

The Powers of State and Nation. — The plan formulated 
by the Constitution in 1787 has continued to this day. 
By it a government with two heads was created. The 
states and the nation were the two heads. Each was given 
certain work to do, and in the work they were given to do 
each was supreme. The people merely decided to divide 
their work between the two governments — the states and 
the nation. In doing so, they made the states and the 
nation distinct from each other. The state cannot compel 
the federal government, or a single federal officer, to do 
anything for the state. The federal government cannot 
compel a state, or a single state or local official, to perform 
duties for the federal government. 



28 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The Constitution fixed the powers given to Congress. 
The article of the Constitution fix:ing such powers should be 
carefully studied (Article i, Section 8). The powers which 
were forbidden to the state should also be carefully studied 
(Article i, Section lo). Those powers not granted to the 
federal government were left to the states. The national 
government can therefore do only those things which are 
allowed by the Constitution of the United States. The states 
may do anything which is not granted to the United States, 
except those things which the Constitution of the United 
States declares the states cannot do. 

State Government. — Each of the forty-eight states has 
a constitution which describes the powers of the state gov- 
ernment and fixes limits of the state government powers. 
It is necessary that the state constitution be carefully 
studied because the work which is done by the state is very 
important to us. When we think of the constitution, we 
should think not only of the Constitution of the United 
States but also of the constitution of the state. 

Local Government. — There are many needs which con- 
cern only the people of a community or a city, and which 
should, therefore, be looked after locally. We have devel- 
oped local government in townships, counties, towns, and 
cities to take care of local affairs. When special needs 
arise, such as the draining or irrigation of land, a special 
local government — the drainage or irrigation district — is 
sometimes formed. 

All local government in townships, counties, and cities 
is a part of the state government, and is, in no way, a part 
of the federal government. The states give to local govern- 
ments the powers which fhey exercise. The local govern- 
ments have only such powers as the states have granted to 
them. The federal government has no authority whatever 



OUR AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 29 

over the government of a township, county, town, or 
city. The federal authorities may be invited by the state 
authorities to come in and restore order, as in a riot 
or serious disturbance. In such cases the federal 
authorities may assume control of all affairs and take 
over the entire work of government. Even then they do 
net control the local governments; they merely take the 
place of them. 

Amendments to the Constitution. — From time to time it 
has been found desirable to change or add to the Constitu- 
tion, as new problems arose and it seemed best to give 
power to, or withhold powers from, the federal government. 
The federal Constitution has been amended nineteen times 
since 1789. That changes would be necessary was seen 
by the framers, and a way to make changes was provided 
(Constitution, Article 5). From time to time, also, the 
meaning of certain phrases in the Constitution has been 
interpreted to permit Congress to enact laws which had 
seemed previously to be beyond its power. Thus the 
general purpose of the Constitution, '^to promote the 
general welfare," has been construed to give power to 
the federal government. For example, it was thought 
that the states had full control over such matters as child 
labor. In 1919, however, the federal government pro- 
hibited child labor by putting a heavy tax on goods 
made by child labor and intended to be shipped to 
another state. 

States versus Nation. — Many people have argued for 
states' rights against ffederal power, while others have 
believed that the Best interests of the country called for 
increased federal power. Many hold the view that when 
a duty can be performed better by the state than by the 
nation, it should be left to the state; if it can be performed 



30 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

better by the nation than by the state, it should be per- 
formed by the nation. 

It should be kept in mind that the power of the state and 
the nation and the control of all affairs come from the 
people, whether the power is exercised by the state or by 
the nation. The people give their power to two hands. 
The federal government is the right hand and the state 
government is the left hand. If the one hand is allowed 
to do all the work, it becomes too strong and powerfully 
developed, while the other grows weak and flabby. An 
even balance between the state and the nation is plainly 
the best plan. When the states cannot perform a duty 
fully, the nation must be called upon; but the nation 
should not be called upon to do things which the state 
may readily do. 



Questions por Review 

Why is the American government representative? 

Why is the American government a democratic government? 

When did the American government come into existence? 

How was our government first organized? 

Was there a central government of all the people? 

What were the Articles of Confederation? 

Why did the states find it desirable to form a central government? 

When was the federal Constitution framed? 

What men were prominent in framing the Constitution? 

In what way was the people's power divided between the nation 
and the states? 

Does the nation have any power over the state government? 

Does the nation have any power over- the city government? 

Does the state exercise any power over the national government? 

Explain what is meant by the statement that ours is a government 
with two heads. 

How are amendments to the Constitution made? 

How many amendments have been adopted? 



OUR AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 31 

Questions for Community Studies 

Review the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confedera- 
tion, and the adoption of the Constitution of the United States, 

Study carefully the sections of the Constitution which name the 
powers granted to Congress, and also the sections which declare what 
states may not do. 

Make a complete list of all the amendments to the Constitution. 

Secure a copy of your state constitution. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS 

Governments are created by the people to carry on 
their affairs, and are given power for that purpose. Those 
who are chosen to conduct the government are intrusted 
with the people's power while in office. The danger arises 
that bad or willful men may be chosen and use their power 
to oppress the people. To guard against this danger the 
people reserve to themselves certain rights which must be 
respected by those who run the government. It should be 
kept in mind that the people do not give, the government 
their personal rights, but only such powers as are necessary 
for the benefit of all. The individual and the home have 
certain rights which are sacred, and cannot be given or 
taken away. The individual reserves the right to think as 
he pleases, and look after his private affairs and business 
as suits him best. He does not give the right to any one 
to tell him what he shall eat, drink, or wear, except when 
his practices in this regard might be injurious or immoral. 
A man may, for instance, be prohibited from securing 
harmful drugs or from destroying his own life. 

The people reserve the right of free speech, religious 
liberty, freedom from search, protection against false 
arrest and imprisonment for debts, protection of property 
and life, and the right of trial by jury. These rights are 
guaranteed to everybody in America. They were won by 
centuries of hard struggles against despots in this and other 
lands, and are fixed as a guarantee in the state and national 
constitutions in the United States. No law can be passed 

32 



THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS 33 

which takes away these rights, and no officer may lawfully 
prevent a person from exercising them. Those who try 
to take aw ay these rights violate the constitutions of the 
state and nation. 

Free Speech.— We believe in America that every person 
should have a chance to speak and write his opinions freely 
if he does not abuse the privilege. The right of free speech 
and free press is therefore guaranteed. The United States 
Constitution says that Congress shall make no law limiting 
the freedom of speech or of the press. The state constitu- 
tions make the same statement regarding the power of 
state legislatures. It is believed in this country that if the 
people are allowed to say publicly whatever they think, 
it will be safer than to attempt to keep them from talking. 
If men could not freely criticize the unjust acts of public 
officials, we would have no relief from tyrants. The right 
of free speech or free press does not protect a man when he 
makes statements that are not true, and which defame the 
personal character of any of his fellow men. False state- 
ments are called slander, and false written statements are 
called libel. A person is liable for damages if he slanders 
or libels another. 

Religious Liberty. — At the very beginning of the settle- 
ment of America, the right to freedom of worship was 
fixed as a part of our institutions, and has remained as one 
of our most important rights. No law can be passed which 
deprives a man of the free exercise of his religious duties. 
No law can be passed which compels the support of any 
church, or which compels a man to go to any particular 
church. These rights are one of the goals which have 
caused people to come to America from other lands. People 
of all religious behefs have sought freedom of worship in 
this country and have found it. Catholics and Protestants 



34 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

alike founded colonies here for religious freedom. The 
earliest guarantees of freedom of worship in America were 
secured by Lord Baltimore, a CathoUc, in Maryland; 
Roger Williams, a Baptist, in Rhode Island; and William 
Penn, a Quaker, in Pennsylvania. 

Freedom from Search. — Another right in America is the 
freedom of every person from unjust interference in his 
home or his person. We accept the statement that "every 
man's house is his castle." No person or ofhcer may enter 
a man's house without permission, unless a court has issued a 
warrant of arrest for a crime, or a search warrant to search 
for stolen goods. A person is also protected on the streets 
against unjust interference by others ; he may not be seized or 
searched, except upon strong suspicion of guilt. 

If it is beheved that a man has committed a crime, or 
has secreted stolen property in his house, a warrant may 
be issued for his arrest, or a search warrant may be issued 
to search his house. The warrant must name the place 
to be searched and the person or thing to be taken. With- 
out such a warrant an ofhcer breaks the law himself if he 
attempts to force his way into any home. Any one can 
stop an officer at the door and demand to see his legal right 
to enter. In this way homes are made safe from petty 
officers who might annoy people by pretending to search 
for persons or things. 

Protection of Property and Life. — Every person has the 
right to the protection of his property and his life. He 
also has the right to carry on his own occupation without 
interference from others. No man's property may be taken 
from him except for just cause by a court after a fair trial. 
If a man's property is needed for pubHc use, as for the 
building of a road or street, it may be taken, but the owner 
must be paid the fair value of the property. In this way, 



THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS 35 

the man is protected, but the rights of all the people are 
safeguarded against the selfishness of one man, who might 
otherwise stop public works which are for the benefit of all. 

False Imprisonment. — Another very important right is 
that which makes it impossible to send a man to prison 
without a fair triaL In some countries people are thrown 
into prison for pretended reasons, and are kept there at the 
whim of the officers. That has never been permitted in 
America, and, if done, it has been in violation of right and 
justice. The right of habeas corpus protects the citizen 
against false imprisonment. By this right the prisoner 
may demand that he be brought at once before a court to 
see if he is lawfully held. If a man is arrested, he has the 
right to demand a trial at once and to have his own wit- 
nesses and the assistance of a lawyer. He also has the 
right to be released from prison on bail until his trial, 
except in serious crimes when the eviden-ce is strongly 
against him. Even if he is found guilty he may take his 
case to the higher courts. Sometimes it happens that 
mistakes are made, but the number of mistakes is not large. 
The purpose of all fair-minded people is to prevent im- 
prisonment by mistake, even for a single day. It is a 
serious injustice to any one to be charged with a crime, or 
to be sent to prison without cause. 

Imprisonment for Debt. — No person may be put in prison 
for debt unless he has committed fraud. This is a valuable 
right which saves people from being thrown into prison 
through no fault of their own. If a man were sent to prison 
for debt, he could not get out until the debt was paid. 
This would be impossible, because he could earn no money 
while in prison. Nowhere in America can a man be sent 
to prison, when, through misfortune or otherwise, he is 
unable to pay his debts. 



36 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



Trial by Jury. — One of the rights which people hold very 
dear is the right of trial by jury. It has been believed for 
centuries in many countries, and always in America, that a 
man would be more secure from injustice if his case were 
decided by a jury of his fellow men. We have always had 




© Brown Bros. 



On Trial 



The jury of twelve men sit in the box and hear the evidence for and 
against the prisoner. The judge sits on the bench to see that a fair trial 
is had. 

the right of trial by jury. A jury consists of twelve persons, 
but in the justice-of-the-peace courts in some states, a jury 
of six is allowed. The jury decides the facts of the case 
and, in criminal cases, determines whether a person charged 
with a crime is guilty or not. When a jury has decided a 
case it is usually final unless appealed. In the case of a 
person who is charged with a serious crime such as murder. 



THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS 37 

once a jury has set him free he cannot be tried again for 
that same crime. 

The people considered the right of trial by jury so impor- 
tant that they fixed in the Constitution of the United States 
the provision that ''the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and pubHc trial by an impartial jury of the state and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed," and 
further, that in suits between man and man, where the 
value of property in question exceeds $20.00, ''the right of 
trial by jury shall be preserved. ' ' The provisions apply to the 
courts of the United States. Every state in the Union has 
a similar provision in its constitution which makes certain 
that trial by jury may be had in all state and local courts. 

Questions eor Review 

What do we mean by the term "the people's rights"? 

Why is the government not permitted to interfere with the people's 
rights? 

Can a person be told what he must or must not eat, drink, or wear? 

In what cases may his food, drink, or clothing be regulated? 

What is the right of free speech? 

What is slander? What is libel? 

In what ways is free speech sometimes restricted? 

What is religious liberty? Why is it protected? 

What is freedom from search? Why is it important? 

How may a person or place be searched? 

How are the property and life of each protected? 

Why should the individual be compelled to sell his property for a 
public purpose? 

Is it possible to compel a person to sell his property for use of a 
hotel, or factory, or an office building? Why should it not be possible? 

What is the importance of freedom from false arrest or imprison- 
ment? 

What rights has a person who is accused of crime? 

Why is imprisonment for debt unfair? 

What do we mean by the right of trial by jury? 

Why is trial by jury an important right? 



^S THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Questions for Community Studies 

Find out the rights of the people by examining carefully the Bill 
of Rights of your state constitution and the Constitution of the United 
States. 

What is the method of search for stolen goods? Get sample of a 
search warrant. 

What are the rights of the person accused of crime in your state? 

Find out the method of selecting juries and the different kinds of 
juries. 



CHAPTER VII 
CHOOSING PUBLIC OFFICERS 

The principal task which the people have to perform in 
carrying on their government is the selection of the men 
who are to make the laws and manage public affairs. The 
people select officers by means of elections and by appoint- 
ment. They choose some of their officers by ballot, and 
the officers who are elected appoint assistants to help 
carry on the work. Men who are chosen from among the 
people to look after the public affairs owe a special duty to 
do their work wisely and honestly. They are trusted by 
the people to do an important task for the common good. 

The Pastoral Letter says : 

In a special degree, the sense and performance of duty is 
required of those who are entrusted with public office. They 
are at once the servants of the people and the bearers of an 
authority whose original source is none other than God. Integ- 
rity on their part, shown by their impartial treatment of all 
persons and questions, by their righteous administration of 
public funds, and by their strict observance of law, is a vital 
element in the life of the nation. 

Who May Vote. — In this country, citizens twenty-one 
years of age and over have the privilege of voting in the 
selection of officers. Certain classes, such as paupers and 
criminals, are not permitted to vote. The privilege of 
voting has been extended from time to time. At first it 
was limited to men who paid a certain amount of taxes. 
Gradually it was extended to all men, and in 1920 it was 
made universal throughout the country for women as well 
as men. We have now reached the Umit in granting the 

39 



40 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



right to vote. Probably no others will be included. Sug- 
gestions are made from time to time that the age be reduced 
to eighteen years, but this change is unlikely. 

The privilege of voting may be withheld altogether, and 
certain limits may be placed upon it. Many advocate an 
educational qualification, and some of the states now 




© Keysiunc V lc7v Co. 

Men and Women Voting 

Voters all over the country cast their ballots in places like this. The 
picture shows Ex-Governor Whitman of New York and Mrs. Whitman 
casting their ballots. 



require it. Others advocate the payment of a poll tax 
before voting, and some of the states now require it. Such 
limitations, if they could be enforced justly, would doubt- 
less be of advantage. Certainly a voter should have intelli- 
gence enough to vote properly. 

The privilege of voting is not exercised by all who are 
entitled to it. Many thousands remain away from the 
polls on Election Day. Such people think so Uttle of the 



CHOOSING PUBLIC OFFICERS 4.1 

great privilege of voting that they fail to do the simple 
duty of casting their ballots. It has been urged by some 
that every person entitled to vote should be compelled to 
do so. Such a plan has not been adopted in this country. 
Probably it would be. unsuccessful, since those who fail to 
vote are so lacking in a sense of duty that their vote, if 
cast, would not benefit the country. 





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Selecting the Presidential Candidate 

Representatives of the people composing each political party meet 
in conventions like this to select the persons who are to be candidates 
for President and Vice President. 

Political Parties. — The candidates who are voted for at 
the elections represent political parties. A political party 
is a body of people who believe in the same general prin- 
ciples and ideas of government and work together for the 
purpose of promoting those ideas and principles. We 
have generally had two main political parties in this 
country. There are always several smaller parties which 
receive a goodly number of votes. Occasionally a new 



42 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

party comes into prominence, as in 191 2 when the Pro- 
gressive Party was formed. Each poHtical party is man- 
aged by officers chosen by its own members. The principal 
business of the party is to put forward candidates for office, 
and to strive, after the election, to secure the adoption of 
the principles for which the party stands. 

Nomination and Election of Candidates. — The poHtical 
parties name the men who are to be voted for. The parties 
do this either by voting directly for candidates within the 
party at primary elections, or by calling a convention of 
representatives of the party members who select the can- 
didates. Throughout most of the states, nominations of 
candidates are now made by direct vote at primary elec- 
tions. On a certain day candidates for nomination in each 
party are voted for, and those who receive the largest 
number of votes are declared to be the nominees of the 
party. The candidates of the various parties are then 
voted for at the general election, and the ones who win the 
election assume control of the offices to which they are 
elected. The convention system is used in a few states, 
and also for the selection of candidates for President and 
Vice President. Delegates are elected from the various 
districts, and these delegates meet and choose a candidate. 
Candidates for President and Vice President are chosen by 
delegates who come from each state and each congressional 
district to a single convention where candidates are chosen 
by the delegates. 

Presidential Elections. — The form of election of Presi- 
dent and Vice President is different from other elections. 
The votes of all of the voters of the country are not counted 
as a whole; they are counted by states. Each state is 
allowed a number of votes, called electoral votes. There 
are as many in each state as there are representatives in 



CHOOSING PUBLIC OFFICERS 43 

the House of Representatives and senators in the Senate 
of the United States. New York has forty-three repre- 
sentatives and two senators and therefore has forty-five 
electoral votes. Nevada has one representative and two 
senators and has three electoral votes. The candidate 
who carries a state receives the electoral vote of that state. 
The candidate who receives more than half the electoral 
votes of all the states is elected. Under this system it may 
happen that a candidate may receive more than half of the 
votes in the whole country and not receive more than half 
of the electoral votes of the states. 

Majority and Plurality. — When a candidate receives 
more than half of all the votes cast at an election he is said 
to receive a majority. When he receives more than any 
other candidate he is said to have a pluraHty. In most 
elections the man who receives a pluraHty is elected. In 
presidential elections the candidate must receive a majority 
of the electoral votes of the states. In some states and 
cities if no candidate receives a majority the two highest 
candidates are again voted for at another election. One 
or the other will thus receive a majority. The evil of the 
plurality system is that when there are several candidates 
one may be elected even though he may not have more 
than twenty or twenty-five per cent of the votes cast. 
The difhculty of the majority system is that when there 
are several candidates no one is likely to have a majority. 

Corrupt Practices. — Unfair methods are often used to 
win an election. Men sometimes buy votes. Voters are 
sometimes kept from voting by threats. Ballot boxes are 
sometimes stuffed with false ballots, and ballots are falsely 
counted. Such methods result in the defeat of the people's 
desires. Candidates, elected by corrupt practices, will 
serve the interests that bought their election instead of the 



44 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



interests of the people. It is proper to use a reasonable 
amount of money to defray the necessary expenses of a 
campaign for election, iDUt it is improper to use more than a 
reasonable amount. All good citizens will strive to see 
that elections are honestly conducted. There is no crime 




The American Spirit 

Cardinal Gibbons and his close friend President Roosevelt, 
American citizens, who typified the ideals of our country. 



Pholo by Knobeloch 



great 



worse than the buying of votes or the stuffing of a ballot 
box. "Government of the people, by the people, and for 
the people will perish from the face of the earth if bribery 
is tolerated," said President Roosevelt. "The givers and 
takers of bribes stand on an equal preeminence of infamy." 
The people cannot manage their own affairs honorably if 
they permit corrupt elections to take place. Laws have 



CHOOSING PUBLIC OFFICERS 45 

been passed in all of the states to prevent such practices and 
conditions are much improved, but there are still many 
cases of the election of men by bribery and other corrupt 
methods. 

Clean Politics. — The highest duty of the citizen is to 
promote the selection of officials who are upright and honor- 
able. This end can be secured only when every dishonest 
practice is removed from government. Such practices can 
be removed readily, if all honest citizens understand public 
questions and devote a reasonable amount of their time 
to the selection of able and honest men, and in securing 
honest laws and just conduct of affairs on the part of all 
officials. Many citizens fail to do their civic duty. They 
excuse themselves on the ground that poHtics are corrupt. 
The excuse is worthless. If politics are corrupt, it is because 
the citizens are not honest, or they do not do their duty. 
Conditions grow worse in proportion as honest citizens 
refrain from voting, or fail to vote intelHgently. 

In civic matters citizens should possess the faith of 
Cardinal Gibbons who, after long experience, declared: 

Evil cannot reach and hold high position either in politics 
or in business in this nation. That is one reason why I say, 
''Young man, expect great things of America!" For no matter 
how the periods of action and reaction may follow one another 
the trend of American life is steadily upward. The people 
deserve to be trusted and no man will go far in a democracy 
who does not have faith in it. 

The Pastoral Letter spoke strongly on this point: 
In its primary meaning, politics has for its aim the adminis- 
tration of government in accordance with the express will of 
the people and for their best interests. This can be accom- 
plished by the adoption of right principles, the choice of worthy 
candidates for office, the direction of partisan effort toward 
the nation's true welfare and the purity of election; but not 
by dishonesty. The idea that politics is exempt from the 
requirements of morality is both false and pernicious; it is 



46 11 1 1: C ACHOLIC Cl'J IZP:N 

])nicliailly c(|ulvalciit lo the notion that in government there 
is neither right nor wrong, and that the will of the people is 
simply an instrument to be used for private advantage. 

The expression or application of such views accounts for 
the tendency, on the part of many of our citizens, to hold 
aloof from ])olitics. But their abstention will not effect the 
needed reform, nor will it arouse from their apathy the still 
larger number who are so intent upon their own pursuits that 
they have no inclination for political duties. Each citizen 
should devote a reasonable amount of time and energy to the 
maintenance of right government by the exercise of his political 
rights and ]:)rivileges. He should understand the issues that 
are brought before the ])e()ple, and cooperate with his fellow 
citizens in securing, by all legitimate means, the wisest possible 
solution. 

Appointment to Office. — When a person is chosen to an 
ofllcc, he is given t)owcr to name certain assistants. The 
people could not possibly give the time to elect all the 
officers, assistants, and helpers. The better plan is to 
select the head and j^ermit him to appoint assistants. Such 
appointments are made usually for a certain number of 
years, but sometimes they are made without any detinite 
term, and the one who makes the appointment may dis- 
charge assistants whenever he sees fit. When a person is 
chosen for a definite term he has a right to hold the office 
for that term unless he proves himself unfit. 

Civil Service. — Hiere arc so many assistants and em- 
l)l()yccs of the government dei^artments that it has been 
found wise lo select most of them by examinations. Such 
examinations are conducted by civil-service commissions, 
the appointments being given to those who stand highest 
on the list. Formerly, appointments were given to party 
members as rewards for service in campaigns. When a 
])a,rty came into ])ower it turned out all the old experienced 
officials and assistants, and gave the jobs to men of their 
own party. 'Iliat system meant poor service, because a 



CHOOSING PUBLIC OFFICERS 47 

man's fitness did not count. He was turned out regardless 
of his ability and his place given to a party worker. The 
civil-service system has done away largely with the ''spoils 
system/' as the selection of party friends for public offices 
was called. 

Questions for Review 

Why is the election of officers the principal task of the people in 
carrying on their government? 

Who are entitled to vote in your state? 

Who are not permitted to vote in your state? 

Is an educational qualification for voting a good policy? 

Is the payment of a tax as a test for voting a good policy? 

What is a political party? 

What political parties are most prominent in your state and com- 
munity? 

How are candidates nominated for office? 

What is the direct primary? 

What is the convention system? 

Which is in use in your community and state in nominating can- 
didates? 

What is the meaning of the term "electoral votes" in presidential 
elections? 

Explain how the President of the United States is elected. 

What is a majority? A plurality? 

Is it best to elect by a plurality or a majority vote? 

Why should corruption in politics be stamped out? 

Are all public officers elected? If not, how are they chosen? 

What is the meaning of civil service? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Write an essay describing how local officers are elected in your 
township, county, or city. 

What officers are elected, and what officers appointed, in your local 
government and state government? 

Secure sample ballots used at primary and general elections and 
carry on a mock election. 



CHAPTER VIII 
MAKING LAWS 

The people in this country make the laws which govern 
them. They do this either through representatives whom 
they choose for the purpose, or by direct vote for or against 
measures presented to them. The people of a city select 
councilmen, or commissioners, to make the laws which are 
especially needed for the city. The people of each state 
elect representatives to the state legislature to make the 
laws needed for the state. The people also elect a Congress 
composed of representatives and senators who make laws 
for the United States. In America we have not one, but 
several, lawmaking bodies. The laws of city, state, and 
nation are made by the people, since representatives act 
for the people who select them. In some cases the people 
themselves, by means of direct vote through the initiative 
or referendum, actually make laws. 

Reasons for Laws. — ^Laws are rules which govern people 
in their relations to each other and provide for the common 
good. The object of laws is to provide for pubhc enterprises 
and to keep people from doing things which interfere with 
the rights of others. Laws are necessary because some 
people will not play fair with their fellow men, and must be 
prevented from committing wrongs upon others. Even a 
small group of people must have laws or rules to govern their 
work. A school could not be run, or a game played, without 
rules. If every one did as he pleased, there would be no 
school and no game. People would not be safe upon the 
streets if it were not for laws or rules. If men were allowed to 

48 



MAKING LAWS 49 

do as they pleased, there would be constant interference with 
the rights of others by selfish and wicked individuals. 
Rules are necessary so that people who want to do the right 
thing may know how to do it. It is necessary, where there 
are so many dangers, to have a large number of laws to 
protect the life, property, and happiness of people. There 
should, of course, be no more laws than are necessary to 
properly protect the rights of the people. 

Equal Voice in Making Laws. — The people of the country 
do not elect representatives to Congress, nor do the people 
of the states elect representatives to the state legislatures. 
The country is divided into districts. Each district elects 
one representative to the House of Representatives and 
each state elects two representatives to the Senate of the 
United States. Each state is divided into districts for the 
election of representatives and senators in the state legis- 
lature. Cities also elect representatives in the city council 
by districts in most cases, although some cities elect council- 
men or commissioners by the vote of the entire city. 

The districts into which a city, state, or the country as 
a whole are divided should be as nearly equal as possible. 
This is necessary, if we are to have equal representation. 
Each representative should represent as nearly as possible 
the same number of people. It would not be fair to have 
districts greatly unequal in population. It is not always 
easy to make representation equal, but equality is the 
ideal for which we should strive. In the case of the Senate 
of the United States, each state regardless of size elects 
two senators, and each state is entitled to at least one 
representative, although its population may not be equal 
to the average for the country. 

City Laws. — The laws necessary to carry on the affairs 
of the city are made by the city council, or the city com- 



50 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

mission. The council or commission is a body of men 
elected by the people to make laws for the city and to 
supervise the management of city affairs. City laws are 
generally called ordinances. The mayor has the right to 
approve or veto ordinances, but the city council may, in 
most cases, pass the act over the mayor's veto, in which 
case the act goes into effect. The need for laws and rules 
in the city is great. People live close together in the city, 
and there is more danger of conflict between the citizens 
and greater possibility for accidents, disease, and other 
calamities. Street traffic alone requires many ordinances 
to regulate the conduct of those who drive or walk upon the 
streets. It would not be safe if traffic were not closely 
regulated. 

The spread of disease is another danger which requires 
close attention in the city. People live so closely together 
that contagious diseases spread easily. Many regulations 
which are unnecessary in the country are needed to protect 
the people of a city against epidemics. The city must also 
bring its water supply and food supply from outside and 
great care must be taken to see that they are pure and free 
from disease. The city must also provide for the disposal 
of waste. Protection against fires and against criminals, 
who flock to the cover of the city, is also necessary. These 
matters are city problems, and therefore the city provides 
for them. 

In some cases full right to manage their own affairs is 
given to the city by the state. This is called home rule. 
In other states the city cannot do all that is necessary for 
its own benefit, but must ask permission of the state. In 
some states nearly all the laws for the city are made by 
the state. This is generally a bad system, because the 
people of a city know best what they want for themselves 



MAKING LAWS 



51 



and should, therefore, have home rule. In those things 
which concern the people outside of the city, as well as 
inside, the state must take a hand also. 

State Laws. — There are forty-eight states in the Union, 
and each state takes care of the affairs of the people within 
its own boundaries. 
We have already 
seen that the thir- 
teen original states 
formed the federal 
government, gave 
it certain powers, 
and left the rest of 
the power in the 
hands of the state. 
Thirty-five new 
states have been 
added to the thir- 
teen original ones, 
and each has the 
power which was 
reserved to the 
states when the 
federal Constitu- 
tion was adopted. 

State laws are 
very important to 
the people, because 

they relate to those things in which the people are most 
interested, such as highways, schools, drainage, charities, 
and elections. The state legislature which makes the laws 
for the state consists in all of the states of two houses, one 
called the senate, and the other the house of representatives, 




© Ewi'ng Galloway 

A State Capitol 

This beautiful capitol at Springfield, 
Illinois, is an example of a state building 
provided for the carrying on of the people's 
business. Here the legislature assembles. 



52 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

or the assembly. A law, in order to be passed, must be 
approved by each house, and then must receive the approval 
of the governor of the state. If the governor disapproves 
a measure passed by the legislature he may veto it, and the 
measure cannot become law unless passed again by both 
houses, usually by more than a majority vote. State 
legislatures meet at the capitol every two years in most of 
the states. Six of the states have annual sessions. 

Federal Laws. — The laws which are needed for the 
country as a whole are passed by the Congress of the 
United States, which consists of the Senate and the House 
of Representatives. The Senate consists of two senators 
elected from each state, and the House at this time con- 
tains 435 members elected by districts into which each of 
the states is divided. The powers of Congress are fixed 
by the federal Constitution and should be carefully studied 
(Article i. Section 8). Congress has the right to pass any 
law which is permitted by the Constitution. To pass a 
law it must be approved by both houses, the Senate and 
House of Representatives, and then receive the ap- 
proval of the President. If the President disapproves. 
Congress may pass it over his veto by a two thirds vote in 
each house. 

The Initiative and Referendum. — Most of the laws for 
the city, state, and nation are made by the legislative 
bodies, but the people have the right to make laws them- 
selves. In about half of the states at this time the people 
may, by means of the referendum, require that a law passed 
by the legislature be submitted to them for approval at an 
election. If the majority votes for the bill it is passed; 
otherwise, it does not become a law. Likewise, in a large 
number of the states, a law may be passed by means of the 
initiative without the aid of the legislature at all. A 



MAKING LAWS 53 

certain number of people may sign a petition asking for a 
certain law, and the matter is then presented to the people 
at an election. If the majority votes for the law it is passed; 
otherwise, it is defeated. All of the states submit changes 
in their constitutions to a vote of the people for approval. 
Some of them require that certain questions, such as bond 
issues, shall be submitted to a vote of the people. 

The initiative and referendum are used in many of the 
cities of the country to pass or defeat ordinances by vote 
of the people of the city. Bonds issued by cities are gen- 
erally submitted to a vote of the people. 

The laws passed by Congress are not subject to a referen- 
dum of the people. The people cannot pass laws for the 
nation by means of the initiative. 

Responsibility to the People. — It should be kept clearly 
in mind that representatives in city councils, state legisla- 
tures, and in Congress speak for the people whom they 
represent and not for themselves. The people are the 
source from which the power to make the laws comes. 
They make the laws through representatives. They use 
the initiative and referendum in order to make sure that 
those whom they select carry out their wishes. 

A representative in the lawmaking body of the city, 
state, or nation should try earnestly to find out what the 
people want. He will exercise his own judgment as to 
whether a law should or should not be passed. He must 
finally win the approval of the people of his district for 
his actions, for if they do not approve, they may defeat 
him when he seeks reelection. A representative should stand 
up boldly for what he believes to be the right, even though 
the people of his district may be against him. In the long 
run, however, he must do what his people want him to do, 
or convert them to his point of view. 



54 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

It should be clear to every one that when laws are passed 
they become the voice of the people and must be obeyed. 
Some people may not like them, but if the majority want 
the laws and lawfully pass them, the few who oppose them 
must give way to the majority and obey them. The 
desires of a few men cannot stand against the majority. 
But even the majority may not pass laws which invade the 
rights of the individual, such as the right of free speech, 
freedom of rehgious worship, trial by jury, freedom from 
false imprisonment, imprisonment for debt, and freedom 
from unreasonable search. These rights are guaranteed 
by the Constitution, and lawmaking bodies are given no 
authority to interfere. 

Laws Should Promote Justice and Fair Play. — Laws 
can have no other justification. Mistakes may be made, 
but they can be corrected. The best interests of the people 
are served when laws are passed after careful study to see 
that they promote justice and fair play to all. To accom- 
plish this purpose, the closest attention should be given to 
the selection of men as lawmakers, who are able and 
honorable and devoted to the principles of justice. 

The Pastoral Letter of the Archbishops and Bishops of 
the United States said: 



The conduct of one's own life is a serious and often a difficult 
task, but to establish by the use of authority the order of living 
for the whole people is a function that demands the clearest 
perception of right and the utmost fidelity to the principles of 
justice. If the good of the country is the one real object of all po- 
litical power this is preeminently true of the legislative power. 
Since law, as the means of protecting right and preserving 
order, is essential to the life of the state, justice must inspire 
legislation, and concern for the public weal must furnish the single 
motive for enactment. The passing of an unjust law is the 
suicide of authority. 



MAKING LAWS 55 

Questions for Review 

What are laws? 

Who make the laws of the city? The state? The nation? 

Why are laws necessary? Give examples. 

Why should each representative represent an equal number of 
people? 

Do you have a city council or a city commission in your city? 

How are laws made in your city? 

What is meant by "home rule"? Why is it desirable? When is 
it not desirable? 

Describe the state legislature of your state. 

How are state laws passed? 

How often and when does your state legislature meet? 

Describe the Congress of the United States. 

How are national laws passed? 

Review the kinds of legislation which Congress may pass (Consti- 
tution of the United States, Article i, Section 8). 

What is the referendum? The initiative? Describe their use in 
making laws. 

Should a representative vote as he pleases? 

Should a representative vote just to please the people? 

When should a representative act independently? 

Why should laws be obeyed? 

Show why representatives should strive always for justice and fair 
play. 

Questions for Community Studies 

Learn how the city council or commission works in your city. 

Collect samples of ordinances. 

Secure copies of the rules of the state legislature from your repre- 
sentative or senator. 

Get samples of bills and laws. 

Secure samples of bills in Congress for the school by writing to 
your representative or senator. 



CHAPTER IX 
CARRYING ON THE PEOPLE'S WORK 

We have seen that the people, either by themselves, or 
through their representatives in the city councils, the state 
legislatures, and in the national Congress, decide what they 
shall do for their common benefit and protection. After 
the laws are made which decide what is to be done, the next 
problem is that of carrying on the work. Who will manage 
the work which is to be done? The people, of course, can- 
not get together to do, or even manage, this work. The 
people have their own pursuits to follow. They cannot give 
a large amount of time to the common work even if it were 
possible for them to come together to do so. The people of a 
single city could not easily assemble to do a piece of work. 
The people of a state or of the nation could not possibly 
do so. 

The Executive Department. — The people select represen- 
tatives to carry out what they have decided to do. There 
must be many such representatives because there are many 
kinds and great amounts of work to be done. There are 
the schools, health and fire departments, armies and navies, 
waterworks, roads and streets, post offices, and numerous 
other things to be conducted and managed. 

The department of the government which carries on the 
people's work is called the executive department. The 
people elect the chief executive, who in the city is called the 
mayor; in the state, the governor; and in the nation, the 
President. The people of cities, states, and nation also 
elect other officers. They elect these men and then expect 

56 



58 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

them to carry out their wishes in executing the laws and 
carrying on work for the common benefit. 

The people cannot elect every person who is to do their 
work. They could not easily pick men with the right 
qualifications. They elect their chief officers and leave 
to them the selection of assistants and workers. It is 
always easier to select one man and make him responsible 
for the assistants whom he selects and for the work which 
he manages. 

United States. — The people of the United States elect 
only two executive officers, the President and the Vice 
President. The President when elected appoints his 
Cabinet, who are the chiefs of the departments, and they, 
in turn, select their principal assistants. Most of the 
persons who do the public work of the United States are 
selected by civil-service examinations and remain in the 
service as long as they perform their duties faithfully. 
The President, or his assistants, do not appoint new workers 
except when there is a vacant place, and then such appoint- 
ments are made from the lists of those who have passed 
the civil-service examination. The President may remove 
any head of a department. It is therefore possible to hold 
the President responsible if he retains men who are unfitted 
to do the necessary work. It is, on the other hand, only fair 
to praise the President when things are done right, since he is 
responsible for the appointment of the men at the head of 
each department. 

The Vice President, who is elected at the same time as 
the President, does not have many duties to perform. He 
is the presiding officer of the Senate and acts as chaiiman 
at its sessions. He is elected principally to become the 
President of the United States in case the President should 
die, resign, or be unable to perform his duties. 



6o THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The President's Cabinet. — The principal officers who 
work under the direction of the President are the members 
of the Cabinet. There are ten members of the Cabinet. 
The Secretary of State looks after relations with other 
countries and keeps the official records. The Secretary of 
the Treasury is the financial officer of the government. He 
collects the taxes and attends to the nation's finances. 
The Secretary of War looks after the equipment and manage- 
ment of the army. The Secretary of the Navy looks after 
the equipment and management of the navy. The Attorney 
General is the legal officer of the government. He attends 
to legal matters in which the nation is interested and 
advises the nation's officers in matters of law. The Secre- 
tary of the Interior is charged with control of the pubhc 
lands of the United States, the relations with the Indians, 
and the management of many public works. The Post- 
master General manages the postal system of the country. 
The Secretary of Agriculture aids in the study of farm 
problems; manages the Weather Bureau; prevents the 
spread of animal and plant diseases; regulates the grading 
of grain; and issues educational literature on farming. 
The Secretary of Commerce aids the commercial work of 
the country, particularly by giving information on local 
and foreign markets. The taking of the census is done by 
the Bureau of the Census of this department. The Secretary 
of Labor is engaged with the problems of labor, the settling 
of disputes between labor and capital, and the study of 
labor problems. 

Each of these departments has many separate divisions 
and bureaus to do the many things which the nation must 
do. There are, in addition, other important boards. The 
Federal Reserve Board controls the banking system. The 
Interstate Commerce Commission regulates the railroads. 



CARRYING ON THE PEOPLE'S WORK 6i 

The Farm Loan Board has charge of the farm loan banks. 
The Trade Commission seeks to prevent unfairness in 
business, and the Civil Service Commission holds examina- 
tions to select employees of the government. 

The States. — The chief executive officer of the state is 
the governor. The people themselves elect the governor 
and several other state officers. The management of affairs 
is divided to some extent between the governor and these 
other officers. This makes it hard to blame any one when 
things go wrong, or to praise any one when things go right. 
It is harder to decide who is to be blamed or praised, when 
there are several men responsible, than when one is in com- 
plete charge. The governor appoints a number of assistants 
who have charge of important work. He does not, however, 
have entire control of the management of state affairs in 
the same way that the President has in national affairs. 

Each state has a secretary of state who keeps the state 
records; a state treasurer who has charge of the funds of 
the state; a state auditor who is the bookkeeper of the 
state's accounts; an attorney general who is the legal 
officer and advisor of the state; a superintendent of public 
instruction who supervises the public schools. These 
officers are usually elected by the people. 

There are also, in most states, a state bank commissioner 
who supervises state banks; an insurance commissioner 
who supervises insurance companies; a railroad, or public 
utilities commission, which regulates railroads, street rail- 
ways, water, gas, and electric companies; a conservation 
department, or state geologist, to study natural resources 
and prevent waste; a labor department, called by different 
names, to inspect factories, prevent accidents, settle labor 
disputes, and look after the settlement for injuries to 
workers in industry. There are other officers in several of 



62 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

the states each charged with special duties in performing 
the people's work. 

The City. — In the cities, the people elect a mayor and 
usually some other officers, such as the city clerk, city 
treasurer, etc. In many cities, the mayor selects all im- 
portant city officers, and is given complete management of 
the city's affairs. Here the blame can be fixed on one 
person if things are not done right. The city officers have 
to do principally w^ith the police and fire departments, the 
protection of health, the laying out and care of streets, the 
building of pubHc works, the conduct of the public schools, 
and the keeping of accurate accounts. In a great many 
cities the people elect three or five men as a commission 
who take the place of the mayor, and who are given charge 
of the entire affairs of the city. This is called the com- 
mission form of city government. In a number of cities 
the commission which is elected by the people selects a 
business manager who runs the affairs of the city, just as 
the head of a plant runs an ordinary business. 

The County and Township. — Local affairs outside of the 
cities and towns are managed by the county and township. 
In a number of states the county is the more important; 
in others, the township is of greater importance. The 
township and county look after the building and care of 
roads; the care of the poor; the direction of rural schools; 
the protection of the people against crime and disease; and 
the management of local pubhc works. - 

Removing Officers. — In most cases, when a man is 
elected by the people as their representative, he holds 
office for a definite length of time. Usually the term is from 
one to four years. If at the end of an officer's term he wishes 
to succeed himself, the people may reelect him, if he has 
done good service, or defeat him, if he has not. It is neces- 



CARRYING ON THE PEOPLE'S WORK 63 

sary that all citizens know whether a man has done good 
work in order that they may reward those who do good 
service, and defeat those who do not. 

In a number of cities and states, a plan of discharging 
officers has been put in use. This plan is the recall. By 
the recall, if a man does not give good service, a certain 
number of people may demand that he be removed. If a 
petition is filed demanding removal, an election must then 
be held to decide whether the man is going to be kept in 
ofhce or turned out. Any employee may be discharged by 
his employer when he fails to do good work, and the recall 
applies the same idea to public officers. In general, how- 
ever, men are not removed by the recall except for very 
serious causes. Generally the only way public servants 
are removed is at the regular election when the end of 
their term comes. 

Questions tor Review 

How is the people's work carried on and managed? 

What part of the management of public affairs dp the people 
themselves perform? 

What is the executive department? 

What is the chief executive officer of the city? The state? The 
nation? 

How are assistants chosen? 

Explain the Executive Department of the United States. 

What is the term of office of the President and the Vice President? 

Give the names of the departments of the national government. 

What are the duties of the Vice President? 

What are the duties of the different Cabinet officers? 

Explain the executive department of the state government. 

How are state officers chosen? 

Give the names and duties of the principal state departments. 

Explain the city government. 

Do you have a commission form of government? 

What is the business manager form of city government? 



64 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

What is the principal work of the counties and townships? 
How are officers removed from office? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Make a list of the departments and boards of the federal govern- 
ment. Secure the information from the congressional manual which 
may be secured for the school from your senator or representative in 
Congress. 

Secure a copy of the yearbook or legislative manual of your state 
for the school library. 

Make a complete list of all state officers, boards, and commissions 
in your state. 

Make a complete list of all city departments with the duties of each. 

Make a list of county and township officers with the duties of 
each. 



CHAPTER X 
THE WORK OF THE COURTS 

Courts are maintained for the purpose of settling dis- 
putes over personal or property rights. Their duty is to 
see that justice is done to all men. They try cases of persons 
who are charged with breaking the laws, and fix the punish- 
ment of those who are found guilty. Nearly every person 
has need at one time or other to make use of the courts. 
Their work therefore is of great importance. 

If a dispute arises between two persons over the ovmer- 
ship of property which they cannot settle by themselves, 
the courts are called upon to decide which is right. If one 
man does harm to another, he may be sued in court for 
damages, and the court will decide the matter. When a 
man dies and leaves property, the court sees to a fair dis- 
tribution among the heirs. These are simple examples of 
the way in which men use the courts to secure their rights. 

The Courts and Crime.— -There is the other side of courts, 
the criminal side, which deals with persons who are charged 
with breaking the laws. It is plain to every one that when 
laws are made, they must be obeyed, or they become use- 
less. Even the simplest rules of the home, or the school, 
when not obeyed, are of no value. The courts are called 
upon to decide the question whether a man who is charged 
with breaking a law really did break it. If he did break the 
law, the court fixes the punishment which he ought to suffer. 
Juries.— All persons accused of crime are entitled to be 
tried by a jury. People are also entitled to a jury trial 
when they desire it in settling disputes over property. A 

6s 



66 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

unanimous decision of the jury is necessary to convict any 
one of crime. Usually such decision is necessary in civil 
matters, but in some states a decision may be made in civil 
cases by a two thirds or three fourths vote. The grand 
jury is a body created to investigate crime. The grand 
jury does not try cases. It secures the evidence and deter- 
mines whether this is sufficient to warrant making a charge 
against a person. If it so decides, it charges the person 
with crime by indicting him. He is then tried in the trial 
court. 

Prosecutors and Defenders. — The public employs prose- 
cutors whose duties are to collect and present evidence 
against persons accused of violating the laws. Such officials 
are usually called prosecuting attorneys or district attor- 
neys. In recent years it has been recognized that there 
should be defenders also, so that persons accused of crime 
might be assured of justice. Some communities have 
therefore created officials called public defenders. All 
states provide that a person accused of crime shall be 
entitled to the services of a lawyer at pubhc expense, if 
necessary. 

Justice-of-the-Peace Courts. — The simplest court of all 
is the justice-of-the-peace court, where disputes over 
small amounts of property or claims for small debts are 
brought. The-justice-of-the-peace is usually elected by the 
people as the people's representative in setthng these small 
cases. When one man sues another man for a small amount 
he makes the complaint to the justice-of-the-peace court. 
The constable or other officer serves complaint on the person 
against whom it is made. That person is then required to 
appear before the justice at a certain time and have the 
case heard. Persons charged with the lesser crimes are 
also brought before the justice-of-the-peace. Such cases 



THE WORK OF THE COURTS 67 

are tried before him. The justice is allowed to decide some 
matters himself, but usually in cases of disputes over 
property or claims, a jury may be demanded. Nearly 
always in the case of a person charged with a crime, a jury 
is demanded to try the case. A person who loses in the 
justice-of-the-peace court may take his case to a higher 
court. 

The City Court. — In cities, most of the cases, in which men 
are charged with crimes, are brought before the city court 
rather than the justice-of-the-peace court. The city court 
tries cases of persons who are charged with breaking the 
city laws, and also those who are charged with the lesser 
crimes, such as drunkenness and assault. In most of the 
cases in the city court, the city judge decides. Any person 
who does not feel that justice has been done him may appeal 
to the higher courts. 

The County or Circuit Court. — The county court, or, as 
it is called in some states, the circuit court, or district court, 
is the next higher court. Its purpose is to try the more 
important cases which do not come before the justice-of- 
the-peace court or the city court. In most places the court 
tries cases between persons over property, and also tries 
persons who are charged with breaking the laws. In many 
of the larger cities a separate criminal court is provided 
which handles all the cases in which persons are charged 
with breaking the laws. A person begins a suit in the 
county court against another person in the same way that 
he does in the justice-of-the-peace court. A complaint is 
made and the person complained of is summoned by the 
officers of the court. On a certain day he must appear, 
and on a day which is fixed by the court the case is tried. 
The judge of this court may decide the case unless one of 
the parties demands that it be decided by a jury. 



68 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The Criminal Court. — A person who is charged with 
crime is first arrested and brought into court. A day is 
fixed for a hearing, and in most cases the man may be 
released on bail until the time of trial. The man who is 
charged with crime usually demands a jury to decide 
whether or not he is guilty. The judge acts as the umpire 
to see that the facts are brought out fairly on both sides. 
If a man is found guilty, the judge fixes the sentence. 

Appeals to Higher Courts. — Any person who has had 
his case tried in the court, and who has lost, may appeal to 
the higher courts on the ground that he did not receive a 
fair trial. In matters of this kind the people are very careful 
to see that every one can get justice by appealing to higher 
courts. These courts go over the facts in the case and 
decide whether a fair trial has been had. A case may be 
taken to the highest court in the state, which is generally 
called the supreme court. In some cases it may go still 
higher to the Supreme Court of the United States. 

All of this court process costs money and a man is unwise 
to begin suit unless he knows that he has a good case. All 
persons against whom complaint is made should attempt 
to settle the matter outside of court, unless they feel sure 
that they are right. 

Some courts may make mistakes. Juries may also make 
mistakes. But when the chance is given to have judges go 
over the whole case on appeal, it is reasonably sure that 
justice will be done. 

The United States Courts. — The last type of court to be 
discussed is the United States courts. We have seen that 
some matters are city matters; some matters are state 
matters; and some matters are national matters. When- 
ever any person violates the laws of the United States, he 
is charged with the crime in the United States courts and 



THE WORK OF THE COURTS 69 

is tried in these courts. The court which tries him is the 
district court. If he is found guilty he may appeal to the 
next higher court, the circuit court of appeals, and then to 
the Supreme Court of the United States. 

The federal courts have charge of all cases of importance 
between citizens of different states or in settling disputes 
between states. Suits are begun the same as in the state 
courts. The complaint is made and the person is sum- 
moned to answer to the complaint. At the trial the case 
may be decided by the judge or by a jury. 

The Supreme Court. — The Supreme Court of the United 
States is the highest court in the land. It consists of nine 
judges who are appointed by the President for life. This 
court is held in Washington in a room set aside in the 
Capitol. It does not try cases. It goes over the cases 
which are tried in the lower courts to see that justice has 
been done. Cases may be appealed from the federal courts 
to the Supreme Court, and some cases may be appealed 
from the state courts. When the decision is made in this 
court there is no higher authority to which to appeal. 
The President, however, may pardon or lighten the sentence 
of persons convicted of crimes under federal laws. 

The Courts and Fair Play. — It is the duty of the court 
to promote fair play among people. It is its duty to pro- 
mote fair play on the part of the community toward the 
individual and of the individual toward the community. 
It is a matter of the greatest importance, therefore, that 
judges and juries be of the highest character. It is also of 
the greatest importance that every decision be made with 
the single object of promoting right and justice. 
Questions for Review 

What is the function of courts? 

Give several ways in which we use the courts. 



70 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

What is the work of the courts with respect to crime? 

What is the reason for having prosecutors? 

What is the reason for guaranteeing every one the aid of a lawyer 
when accused of crime? 

What is the purpose of the public defender? 

What is a jury? 

Why do we favor jury trials? 

What is a grand jury? 

Describe the justice-of-the-peace court ; the city court ; the county 
or circuit court. 

How is a person tried for crime? 

Name the United States courts. 

Do United States courts try persons who break city or state laws? 

Do state courts try persons who break federal laws? 

Describe the United States Supreme Court. 

Why should the courts be especially careful to promote fair play 
and justice? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Secure samples of all of the documents used in the justice-of-the- 
peace court such as warrants, summons, subpoenas, etc. 

Name all of the courts in your community. 

Write out the process by which a suit between two persons would 
be tried. 

Detail the process by which a person would be tried for a crime in 
your community. 

Find out how juries are secured. 



CHAPTER XI 

DEALINGS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 

The people of each country carry on trade with other 
countries. They sell goods to the people of other countries 
and they, in turn, sell goods to them. Many important in- 
dustries are dependent upon supphes from distant lands. 
We would not be able to have many of the very simple 
things upon which we live, if we did not exchange goods with 
many countries. The people of each country also travel 
in other countries of the world. Some of this travel is for 
the purpose of sight-seeing and adventure, some of it for 
education, some to find work, and some to get trade. People 
of each country are in other countries at all times for one 
purpose or another. 

Protection of Citizens* Rights. — It is necessary, if 

. America is to be fair with the people of all countries, that 
the citizens of other countries shall be protected in our own 
country, and that our citizens shall be protected in other 
countries. It is necessary that all countries should play fair 
with their neighbors. Nations as well as individuals depend 

. upon each other for many of the things upon which they 
live. Fair deahng among nations is just as important as 
fair dealing among people and must be guided by the same 
moral principles. 

In the Pastoral Letter it states: 

Since God is the Ruler of nations no less than of individuals, 
His law is supreme over the external relations of states as well 
as in the internal affairs of each. The sovereignty that makes 
a nation independent of other nations does not exempt it from 
its obligations toward God; nor can any covenant, however 

71 



72 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

shrewdly arranged, guarantee peace and security, if it dis- 
regards the divine commands. These require that, in their 
dealings with one another, nations shall observe both justice 
and charity. By the former, each nation is bound to respect 
the existence, integrity, and rights of all other nations; by the 
latter, it is obliged to assist other nations with those acts of 
beneficence and good will which can be performed without undue 
inconvenience to itself. From these obligations a nation is not 
dispensed by reason of its superior civiHzation, its industrial 
activity, or its commercial enterprise; least of all, by its military 
power. On the contrary, a state which possesses these advan- 
tages is under a greater responsibility to exert its influence for 
the maintenance of justice and the diffusion of good will among 
all peoples. So far as it fulfills its obligation in this respect, a 
state contributes its share to the peace of the world: it disarms 
jealousy, removes all ground for suspicion, and replaces intrigue 
with frank cooperation for the general welfare. 

It has not always been the case that fair dealing was 
found among nations. Many times wars have been brought 
on because of unfair dealing. Sometimes disputes arise 
which bring nations to the verge of war. Citizens of one 
country are thrown into prison unjustly, or have their 
property or their lives taken without cause and without 
a fair trial. 

The principal reason why there is unfairness between 
people of different countries often arises from the fact that 
they do not know each other well enough. Very often those 
whom we do not know we do not trust. As people of one 
country meet the people of other countries and learn that 
all desire fair play, the quarrels which have been frequent 
are likely to disappear. 

Ambassadors and Ministers. — It is always necessary for 
each country to have its representative in other countries 
to look after the interests of its own citizens and to act as 
an agent in presenting matters to foreign governments. 
The representatives in the most important countries are 
called ambassadors; in others they are called ministers. 



DEALINGS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 73 

We have ambassadors or ministers in the capitals of all of 
the countries of the world. All other countries have their 
ambassadors or ministers at Washington. These men are 
friendly visitors who settle many of the differences which 
arise between the people of different nations. Whenever 




© Keystone View Co., Inc. 



An American Embassy 

Here the minister from this country to Persia conducts the business 
which our government must carry on with the government of Persia. 

any differences arise respecting the rights of our country, 
or of its citizens in a foreign state, our ambassador or min- 
ister acts as the agent of our government to confer with the 
government of the foreign state in settling the matter. 
Ambassadors and ministers are very effective in promoting 
understanding and good feeling between nations. 

Consuls and Agents. — We have also our representatives 
for commercial purposes not only at the capitals of the 



74 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

countries of the world, but also in the leading cities. These 
men help our own people in settling any differences which 
may arise in their daily life or trade in a foreign country. 
The other nations have their representatives in our leading 
cities for the same purpose. These representatives are 
called consuls. The citizens of any country who are in a 
foreign land and desire information or help of any sort, 
apply to the consul of their own country, whose duty it is 
to help them. By having these representatives at the 
capitals and the leading cities, it is possible to help people 
out of difhculties and at the same time to learn the facts 
in every case and thus prevent quarrels. Consuls and 
agents also furnish information about markets for goods 
to the manufacturers and merchants of their own lands. 

Arbitration of Disputes. — It has long been the ideal of 
many people that quarrels between nations should always 
be settled by peaceable means. Tennyson wrote of the 
future time: 

''Till the war drum throbb'd no longer, and the battle flags 
were furl'd, 
In the Parliament of man, the Federation of the world." 

Nations can settle their differences by understanding 
each other just as persons can settle their quarrels when 
they know each other's purposes. Many questions are 
likely to come up between the people of different countries 
which might lead to trouble. Systems of courts for the 
purpose of deciding such questions between countries have 
been provided for. These are called Arbitration Courts. 
Two countries agree to submit their quarrels to an Arbitra- 
tion Court, which they themselves create. Usually each 
country selects a certain number of the members of the 
court, and these choose additional neutral members. The 
court hears the case and decides which country is right. 



76 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

America has settled most of its troubles with other countries 
in this way. We have had some important differences with 
other countries settled with great success by arbitration. 

Questions for Review 

Why must we have dealings with the people of other countries? 

Give several reasons for people going to other countries. 

Why is fair dealing among nations advantageous to each? 

What is the ideal expressed by the Pastoral Letter? 

What are the duties of ambassadors and ministers? 

Show why their duties are important. 

What are consuls? 

Why are consuls placed in all leading cities? 

How do consuls help the business men of their country? 

What is meant by arbitration? 

What are courts of arbitration? 

How are they usually created? 

Why should differences be settled by arbitration? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Give three important questions between the United States and 
other countries which have been settled by arbitration. 

Find out to which countries we send ambassadors instead of 
ministers. 

Who are our ambassadors to England, France, Italy, Japan? 

Discuss the advisability of having in each foreign country a suitable 
home at public expense for our ambassadors and ministers. 



CHAPTER XII 







FAITH ^ 





THE DEFENSE OF THE COUNTRY 

Every citizen of America is expected to do his part in 
anything that concerns the safety and welfare of the people 
of this country. He is expected to understand public 
questions and to vote at all elections when the makers of 
the laws and the man- 
agers of the people's 
business are elected. 
He is expected also to 
serve his country in 
time of need, even to 
the extent of giving 
his life or his property 
for the safety of the 
country. If all honor- 
able means fail and the 
country is compelled to 
go to war with another 
country, it is the duty 
of every citizen to take 

part. It is the right of government to compel each to 
do his duty. 

The Catholic Attitude.— The attitude of the Catholic 
people on this subject was clearly set forth by the Fathers of 
the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1884. They said : 

We consider the establishment of our country's independence, 
the shaping of its liberties and laws, as a work of special 
Providence, its framers "building better than they knew," the 

77 



Courtesy of N. C. W. C. 

Insignia of the 
National Catholic War Council 

This insignia, with the slogan "For 
God and Country," was adopted by 
the Hierarchy of the United States to 
symbolize its war service. 



78 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Almighty's hand guiding them. . . . We believe that our 
country's heroes were the instruments of the God of nations in 
establishing this home of freedom; to both the Almighty and to 
His instruments in the work we look with grateful reverence; 
and to maintain the inheritance of freedom which they have 
left us, should it ever — which God forbid — be imperiled, our 
Catholic citizens will be found to stand forward as one man, 
ready to pledge anew ''their lives, their fortunes, and their 
sacred honor!" 

Again, at the outbreak of the war in 191 7, the Catholic 

Hierarchy declared: 

Our people, now as ever, will rise as one man to serve the 
nation. Our priests and consecrated women will once again, 
as in every former trial of our country, win by their bravery, 
their heroism, and their service new admiration and approval. 

The records of service in the war show that the promise 
was fulfilled. 

The Military Organization. — American states declare in 
their constitutions that every able-bodied man between the 
ages of 18 and 45 is subject to military service in time of 
need. The national Constitution does not fix the age limits 
for national service. When the American people engaged in 
the World War, the Congress of the United States fixed the 
ages for active military service at 21 to 31, and afterward 
extended it to the ages of 18 to 45. 

'Volunteer Armies. — In the earlier years of our history, the 
country depended upon volunteers to fight its battles. 
We see now that in time of war the system is unjust because 
many men who ought to volunteer will not do so. Other 
men who ought, for one reason or another, to remain at 
home enlist through a sense of patriotism. There was a 
time when a person could hire a substitute to take his place, 
or avoid going to war by paying a sum of money. All 
this is changed now. It is unfair to permit any one to 
escape his duty because he happens to have money enough 




(L> 
O 

I *§ 



•s 



8o THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

to hire a substitute or pay a price. Instead of depending 
upon volunteers, Congress and the President decided at the 
opening of the war to call upon the able-bodied men who 
could be most easily spared for war service. The laws did 
not permit any one to escape except for a good cause. It 
was intended that every one should be treated alike. 

It is the aim of this country, however, that there shall be 
as little need as possible for forcing men to go into armies. 
We are a peace-loving country and desire to remain at 
peace with all nations. We do not keep an army larger 
than is necessary for our defense and are very careful to 
see that the army is not placed in a position to exercise 
power over the citizens of the country. 

The Army of the United States. — The army of the 
United States consists of two parts, the regular army and 
the national guard. The regular army is entirely under 
the control of the national government and is directed by 
the War Department. The national guard is organized 
by the different states under rules laid down by the federal 
government. The state and nation divide the expense of 
the national guard. The men in the regular army are on 
duty all of the time. The men in the national guard are 
on duty only when called by the governor. When the 
national government needs the services of the national 
guard of a state it is called by the President. 

The Navy. — The navy of the United States is entirely 
under the control of the United States through the Navy 
Department. The states are expressly forbidden to keep 
ships of war. The navy is manned by volunteers who serve 
enlistments for a certain length of time. 

Fear of Military Dictation. — The people of America 
have from the very beginning feared the interference of 
the army in public affairs. At the time of the American 



THE DEFENSE OF THE COUNTRY 



8i 



Revolution it was common in Europe to find people com- 
pelled to obey the army and its generals. Armies destroyed 
the governments of countries and set up new ones for their 
own purposes. 

Americans believed then, and believe now, that the army 
is for the purpose of defense and that it should never be 




Courtesy of U. S. Navy Recruiting Service 

A Modem Battleship 

The navy is the most important part of our nation's defense because 
it must be relied upon to prevent invasion by hostile forces. 

allowed to control the affairs of the country. The Declara- 
tion of Independence declared that one of the reasons why 
the colonies demanded independence was that the King of 
England had tried to make the army independent of the 
people. They said he had "kept among us in times of peace 
standing armies without the consent of our legislature." 
Another evil which was feared was that the citizens 
without their consent would be compelled to feed and keep 
soldiers in their homes. This had been common in many 



82 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

countries. To protect themselves against anything of this 
sort, the United States Constitution declares that no 
soldiers shall in time of peace be kept in any person's 
house without that person's consent. 

It had been common also for armies in other countries to 
compel the people to tax themselves for the support of the 
army. There has always been a just fear in this country of 
any power compelling the people to raise money or pay 
taxes. It was provided, therefore, in the Constitution of 
the United States that no appropriation for the army 
should be made by Congress for more than two years at a 
time. In this way it is made necessary to vote money 
every two years, or else the army would have no means of 
support. The people can control the army by refusing to 
vote the money to support it. 

The Size of the Army. — In ordinary times the army of 
the United States is small, but it may be rapidly increased 
to large size, as was shown by the creation of an army of 
4,000,000 men for the war in Europe. The people generally 
believe that a small army is sufhcient because it can be 
readily increased in time of need. Being far away from any 
nation which could attack us, there is less need for a large 
army than if we were near unfriendly mihtary powers. 
The American army and navy should be for defense, and 
not for offense. 

It is the behef of many people that by the growth of 
better understanding between the people of different 
countries, and by agreements among nations, the quarrels 
which arise between nations can be settled. The American 
people, while hoping that wars may be ended and working 
to that end, are wise enough to see that they must be pre- 
pared for their own defense against those who might un- 
fairly attack them. 



THE DEFENSE OF THE COUNTRY 83 

Questions foe. Review 

Why does a citizen owe a duty to serve the country? 

Why should the country have a right to force each to do his duty? 

What is the Catholic attitude on service to the country? 

What are the age limits for military service? 

What is a volunteer army? 

Why is the volunteer system not the best in time of war? 

How is the army of the United States organized? 

What is the regular army? 

What is the national guard? 

Why did the people of the past fear military dictation? 

What means were taken to prevent military dictation? 

How large should the army and navy of the United States be? 

Questions foe. Community Studies 

What is the present size of the army? 

What is the present size of the national guard of your state? 
Tabulate all of the provisions of the United States Constitution 
relating to military work. 
Do the same for your state constitution. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE CITIZEN'S PART 

The citizen should have a zealous interest in the com- 
mon welfare; he should feel keenly the duty to do his part 
in the work of the community, the state, and the nation. 
He should possess pubhc spirit. There is not a single act 
of government which does not benefit the people. Men 
and women should be ashamed, therefore, to receive con- 
stant benefits without doing their share of the work. 

The Right Reverend Bishop Mclntyre said in the intro- 
duction to the book, ''Christian Citizenship": 

A man of public spirit is one who has a strong element of 
grateful generosity in his composition. He is a man quick to 
recognize how much he himself owes to the kindness, to the 
labors, and to the self-sacrifice of others. . . . He is a man 
who knows something of the lives of the great benefactors who 
have lived in his native land and the great philosophers, and 
he studies their history in order that he may grow ashamed to 
be a drone in society. 

He is a man who does not shut himself up in the narrow circle 
of his own private interests, his own selfish pleasures; but, 
remembering with gratitude all that he has received from others, 
has no heart to be a universal debtor. A man without public 
spirit is a moral bankrupt. 

A man devoid of public spirit is one who can go on continually 
devouring benefits — every benefit he can get from the hands 
of others — without being spurred on to do anything he can 
for the common good; and while receiving and not giving, 
feels no shame. 

President Roosevelt said: 

The true Christian is the true citizen, lofty of purpose, 
resolute in endeavor, ready for a hero's deeds, but never looking 



THE CITIZEN'S PART 85 

down on his task because it is cast in the clay of small things; 
scornful of baseness, awake to his own duties, as well as to his 
rights, following the higher law with reverence, and in this world 
doing all that in him lies, so that when death comes he may 
feel that mankind is in some degree better because he has lived. 

The Duty of Voting. — The adult citizen should vote at 
every election. He has no right to shirk this simple duty. 
He should not share in the benefits of the government if he 
is not willing and anxious to do the simple task of helping 
to elect the men who are to act as his agents in conducting 
the public affairs. No one has a right to complain about 
the conduct of public work if he fails to vote. It is not fair 
play to the rest of the people when any man does not assist 
in the work which benefits all. 

A point which is often overlooked by the voter is that 
his single vote may decide the election of an officer or the 
passage of a law. Upon his single vote may turn the 
national fate. The change of a few votes in presidential 
elections in several instances would have elected a different 
President, and perhaps have changed entirely the course of 
events for better or for worse. There are many instances 
when a single vote stood between a good or a bad poHcy. 
Such facts should cause the voter to vote with a feeling of 
solemn obligation for the welfare of his community and his 
country. 

Civic Intelligence. — Every citizen should study public 
questions thoroughly in order to vote wisely, and he should 
take the time, above all things, to learn about the men who 
are to be voted for as public officers. He should know 
whether these men are capable of doing the work which the 
office requires. He should know whether they will honestly 
try to be faithful representatives of the people. He should 
follow only those leaders who are true to the people's in- 
terests. This is important to him, for the people's interests 



S6 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

are his interests also. Every citizen should study public 
questions and know about pubKc men in order that he 
may praise and support those who do good work, and 
blame and condemn those who do not. It helps toward 
good government to praise officials who do good work; 
and it helps to prevent bad government to tell the truth 
about officials who fail to give faithful service. 

Holding Office as a Trust. — Another duty of the citizen 
is that of holding office whenever he believes that he can be 




Courtesy of N. C. W. C. 

A Class in Citizenship 

The National Catholic Welfare Council and other organizations, 
public and private, have established classes throughout the country 
where men and women may receive instruction in citizenship, 

of good service in handling public affairs. Most men are 
busy with their own duties and many men do not like to 
give up their own work to serve the public. When a man 
is able to be of special value in doing public work, it is his 
duty to do it. The way in which men and women of the 
country left their own work during the war to help in the 
country's work is one of the best examples of good citizen- 
ship. Every citizen should be ready at all times to do 



THE CITIZEN'S PART 87 

the same for the benefit of his country. While it is true 
that the ofhce should seek the man rather than the man the 
ofhce, still the man must generally offer himself as a can- 
didate and actively contest for election. 

Paying the Cost. — Every citizen should understand that 
the cost of government must be paid by all the people and 
that any one who does not pay his part is a shirker. Every 
citizen ought to see that the benefits which he receives 
from the work done by the government are far greater 
than the cost. He should pay the taxes which are laid 
upon him with a feeling that he has received his money's 
worth. Unfortunately it is not always true that men 
think of their taxes in this way. 

In countries having despotic governments, taxes are not 
spent for the benefit of the people who pay them, but for 
the benefit of the ruKng classes — the kings and nobles. 
Taxes are not levied by the people themselves, but by men 
who control them and compel them to pay. Taxes are 
looked upon as being forced from them by some power 
over which they have no control, rather than as the fair 
part which they should pay for benefits received. The 
situation is different in this country. Here the people tax 
themselves for their own benefit. There is no unjust power 
which compels them to pay. Citizens provide certain 
things for their own benefit through their government. 
They raise the money to pay for these benefits through 
taxation. Since this is the case, it should be the duty of 
each to pay his share. It should be his further duty to see 
that every one else pays his share. The man who does not 
pay lives at the expense of some one else. The man who does 
not pay his part of the cost of roads and streets, of schools 
and hospitals, of pohce and fire departments, of armies 
and navies, is not playing fair with the rest of his fellows. 



88 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Fair Play. — In all matters of government it is the citizen's 
duty to strive for fair play and the square deal. He cannot 
permit injustice to go unchallenged, because he may him- 
self be the victim of injustice. Fair play to all is the only 
way that fair play may be assured to each. The citizen 
must see that the laws are just and the men who administer 
them act justly; he must see that each person bears his 
share of the common burdens, but that no one is compelled 
to carry more than his share. All laws which give special 
privileges, or opportunities to some which are not open to 
all, should receive the instant condemnation of every 
believer in democracy. 

Questions for Review 

What are the most important duties of the citizen? 

What is public spirit? 

Why should citizens vote at every election? 

Should citizens be compelled to vote? 

Should a person vote if he is not informed on the civic problems? 

Why does the voter need a good knowledge of government? 

Should a man seek public office? 

Should a man refuse public office? 

Who pays the cost of government? 

Why should each person pay his part? 

Why should each citizen strive for fair play? 

Question for Community Study 

Find out what percentage of the voters of your community, city, 
and state voted at the last election. 



PART II 

CIVIC PROBLEMS 



CHAPTER XIV 
EDUCATION 

The American people believe very strongly in education. 
Almost from the beginning, in this country, education has 
been provided, and now it is possible for any one in any part 
of the country to be educated. 

Education enables men and women to do their duty as 
citizens. To be good citizens every one must be able to 
read and write. A man who cannot read and write cannot 
keep track of pubHc affairs and vote with intelligence. 
Every one must be able to use figures in order to keep track 
of ordinary business affairs and prevent himself from being 
cheated. Every person should learn how to promote health 
and should learn to do work by which he can earn 
a living. Every person should learn the way in which 
public affairs are governed so that he may take his part 
in politics and in public affairs. Any system of educa- 
tion which fails to build character and impart correct 
views is decidedly incomplete. Knowledge without 
character cannot make good men or good citizens. 
Religion, according to the best authorities, is an essential 
part of education. 

Public and Private Education. — Education is carried on 
in public, parochial, and private schools. Each state main- 
tains a system of free public schools. The Catholic Church 
and a few of the Protestant churches maintain parochial 
schools. Private schools are provided by individuals and 
organizations and are supported entirely by the people 
who use them. 

QI 



92 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



The Right to Educate. — Education is carried on in the 
home and the school. It is the parent's duty to educate his 
children; the school provides the means of instruction 
which the individual does not possess. The state may 
require all parents to educate their children. The place of 




Catholic Education 



Courtesy of N. C. W. C. 



This picture shows the children from a Catholic school entering the 
church for religious services. 

the family, the school, and the state in education is set 
forth in the Pastoral Letter as follows : 

In the home with its limited sphere but intimate relations, 
the parent has both the right and the duty to educate his 
children; and he has both, not by any concession from an 
earthly power, but in virtue of a divine ordinance. Parenthood, 
because it means cooperation with God's design for the per- 
petuation of humankind, involves responsibility, and therefore 
implies a corresponding right to prepare for complete living 
those whom the parent brings into the world. 



EDUCATION 93 

The school supplements and extends the educational function 
of the home. With its larger facilities and through the agency 
of the teachers properly trained for the purpose, it accom- 
plishes in a more effectual way the task of education for which 
the parent, as a rule, has neither the time, the means, nor the 
requisite qualifications. But the school cannot deprive the 
parent of his right nor absolve him from his duty, in the matter 
of educating his children. It may properly supply certain 
deficiencies of the home in the way of physical training and 
cultivation of manners; and it must, by its discipline as well as 
by explicit instruction, imbue its pupils with habits of virtue. 
But it should not, through any of its ministrations, lead the 
parent to believe that, having placed his children in school, he 
is freed from responsibility, nor should it weaken the ties which 
attach the child to parent and home. On the contrary, the 
school should strengthen the home influence by developing in 
the child those traits of character which help to maintain the 
unity and happiness of family life. By this means it will 
cooperate effectually with the parent and worthily discharge 
its function. 

Since the child is a member not only of the family, but also 
of the larger social group, his education must prepare him to 
fulfill his obligations to society. The community has the right 
to insist that those who as members share in its benefits shall 
possess the necessary qualifications. The school, therefore, 
whether private or public as regards maintenance and control, 
is an agency for social welfare, and as such it bears responsibility 
to the whole civic body. 

Elementary Schools, High Schools, and Colleges. — To 

meet the needs of all people, elementary schools are pro- 
vided to train all children in the simple things which they 
should know; namely, reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, 
composition, religion, civics, health, history, and vocational 
work. In all but one of the states of this country every child 
must attend school for a certain number of years, usually 
between the ages of eight and fourteen. In the elementary 
schools, both public and parochial, we find all of the children 
of all the people up to the time they are about fourteen years 
of age. It is well that the best kind of elementary education 



94 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

be given, because all children are in school during those 
years. 

It would be good if every child could continue school 
beyond fourteen years and thus get more education in the 
high schools, academies, and colleges. A large number, 
however, drop out at fourteen years of age and go to work. 
Those who go to work at an early age do not always 




A Chicago Public School 

The people provide elementary schools, high schools, vocational 
schools, and colleges for the education of youth, 

succeed as well as those who make special efforts to con- 
tinue in school. In all parts of the country, high schools 
are provided so that children may take four years of work 
after they have had their regular course in the elementary 
schools. In these schools many subjects are studied and 
children obtain a valuable education. In all parts of the 
country, too, there are colleges, publicly and privately 



EDUCATION 



95 



supported, which give a chance to every one for the most 
complete education of which he is capable. They also 
give the chance to study for professions such as law, 
medicine, dentistry, and engineering. 

Vocational Education. — Since the people engage in all 
kinds of occupations, it is a good thing to teach occupation 








Courtesy of N. C. W. C. 

Wounded Soldiers at The Catholic University 
In the Rehabilitation School at The Catholic University wounded 
soldiers are trained for various occupations. Many such schools were 
established by the government and welfare agencies to train wounded 
soldiers. 

so that boys and girls, or men and women, may become 
skilled workers in whatever they may undertake. Most of 
the children who leave school at fourteen years of age have 
not learned how to do any kind of work and they take 
poorly paid jobs. By taking time to learn a skilled trade 
they are able to earn more and get ahead further. Voca- 



96 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

tional schools are, therefore, provided to train boys in 
various hnes of useful work such as carpentry, machine 
shop, electricity, and plumbing; and girls in home-making, 
millinery, and dressmaking. Those who take the voca- 
tional courses iind that after they go to work they earn 
much larger wages and get on faster than the boys and 
girls who do not study to be skilled workers. 

Part Time Schools. — It happens many times that boys 
and girls go to work to help earn the living for the family, 
especially in cases where the father is disabled or dead. 
They are unable to continue in school to take the high- 
school work or the vocational work although they would 
be anxious to do so if they could. The American people are 
so concerned about the good of all that these children are 
not forgotten. Means are provided so that boys and 
girls may go back to the school for an hour or two a day or 
a few hours a week to take up further studies in whatever 
line they select. This plan gives a chance to every one to 
get a better education no matter in what condition of life 
he may be. In nearly all of the large cities of the country 
and in some of the smaller communities it is possible to 
attend such schools without losing time from regular work. 
Those who cannot go to these part time schools are given 
a chance to get further education by mail. A great many 
cf the colleges and some other schools give courses by 
correspondence to those who cannot attend in person. 
Many young men and women by studying at home, eve- 
nings, have been able to help themselves greatly. 

Libraries. — There is still another chance to get an educa- 
tion by those who are unable to attend school. Every 
section of the country is within reach of libraries from which 
books may be secured for the study of any line of work or 
for reading on any subject. These libraries are free and any 



EDUCATION 97 

one may borrow books from them. It is possible for any- 
body to educate himself by reading well-selected books. 
Many of the greatest men the country ever produced, 
including Abraham Lincoln, were educated in this way. 

Compulsory Education.— Every state compels parents to 
send their children to school. The states do not require 
that children be educated in any particular school. The 
choice of the school is left to the parents. The children 
may go to pubhc, parochial, or private schools. 

The Pastoral Letter declared: 

The state has a right to insist that its citizens shall be edu- 
cated. . r 1 • 

It should encourage among the people such a love of learning 
that they will take the initiative and, without constraint, 
provide for the education of their children. Should they, 
through negligence or lack of means, fail to do so, the state has 
the right to establish schools and take every other legitimate 
means to safeguard its vital interests against the dangers 
that result from ignorance. 

The state is competent to do these things because its essential 
function is to promote the general welfare. But on the same 
principle it is bound to respect and protect the rights of the 
citizen and especially of the parent. So long^ as these rights 
are properly exercised, to encroach upon them is not to further 
the general welfare but to put it in peril. If the function of 
government is to protect the liberty of the citizen, and if the 
aim of education is to prepare the individual for the rational use 
of his liberty, the state cannot rightfully or consistently make 
education a pretext for interfering with rights and liberties 
which the Creator, not the state, has conferred. Any advan- 
tage that might accrue even from a perfect system of state 
education would be more than offset by the wrong which the 
violation of parental rights would involve. 

With great wisdom our American Constitution provides that 
every citizen shall be free to follow the dictates of his c*onscience 
in the matter of religious belief and observance. While the 
state gives no preference or advantage to any form of religion, 
its own best interests require that religion as well as education 
should flourish and exert its wholesome influence upon the lives 



98 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

of the people. And since education is so powerful an agency 
for the preservation of religion, equal freedom should be secured 
to both. This is the more needful where the state refuses 
religious instruction any place in its schools. To compel the 
attendance of all children at these schools would be practically 
equivalent to an invasion of the rights of conscience, in respect 
to those parents who beHeve that rehgion forms a necessary 
part of education. 

Management of Public Education. — The public educa- 
tional system is under the control of the states and is 
carried on by the cities, towns, townships, and school dis- 
tricts. The local authorities manage the schools, subject 
to supervision and inspection by county superintendents or 
supervisors, and also by the state superintendent of public 
instruction, or an officer having a similar name. Many states 
also have a board of education which exercises considerable 
supervision and in some states chooses the textbooks for 
the schools. 

The local authorities support the schools mainly by taxa- 
tion and the state gives financial aid. The national govern- 
ment gives financial aid to agricultural and other vocational 
training. The national government also maintains the 
Bureau of Education which studies educational problems 
and gives information and counsel. The state universities 
and agricultural schools are usually managed by a board 
appointed by the governor. 

The Church and Education. — The purposes of Catholic 
education are briefly set forth in the Pastoral Letter and 
are quoted here at length: 

The Church in our country is obliged, for the sake of 
principle, to maintain a system of education distinct and sepa- 
rate fronl other systems. It is supported by the voluntary 
contributions of Catholics, who, at the same time, contribute 
as required by law to the maintenance of the public schools. 
It engages in the service of education a body of teachers who 
consecrate their lives to this high calling; and it prepares, 



EDUCATION 99 

without expense to the state, a considerable number of Ameri- 
cans to live worthily as citizens of the republic. 

The principles which are declared by the Pastoral Letter 
to be the basis of Catholic education are: 

First, the right of the child to receive education and the 
correlative duty of providing it are established on the fact 
that man has a soul created by God and endowed with 
capacities which need to be developed, for the good of the 
individual and the good of society. In its highest meaning, 
therefore, education is a cooperation by human agencies 
with the Creator for the attainment of His purpose in 
regard to the individual who is to be educated, and in 
regard to the social order of which he is a member. Neither 
self-realization alone nor social service alone is the end of 
education, but rather these two in accordance with God's 
design, which gives to each of them its proportionate value. 
Hence it follows that education is essentially and inevitably 
a moral activity, in the sense that it undertakes to satisfy 
certain claims through the fulfillment of certain obligations. 
This is true independently of the manner and means which 
constitute the actual process; and it remains true, whether 
recognized or disregarded in educational practice, whether 
this practice includes the teaching of morality, or excludes 
it, or tries to maintain a neutral position. 

Second, since the child is endowed with physical, intel- 
lectual, and moral capacities, all these must be developed 
harmoniously. An education that quickens the intelhgence 
and enriches the mind with knowledge, but fails to develop 
the will and direct it to the practice of virtue, may produce 
scholars, but it cannot produce good men. The exclu- 
sion of moral training from education is more dangerous 
in proportion to the thoroughness with which the intel- 
lectual powers are developed, because it gives the impres- 



loo THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

sion that morality is of little importance, and thus sends 
the pupil into life with a false idea which is not easily 
corrected. 

Third, since the duties we owe our Creator take prece- 
dence of all other duties, moral training must accord the 
first place to religion — that is, to the knowledge of God and 
His law, and must cultivate a spirit of obedience to His 
commands. The performance, sincere and complete, of 
religious duties insures the fulfillment of other obligations. 

Fourth, moral and religious training is most effective 
when it is joined with instruction in other kinds of knowl- 
edge. It should so permeate these that its influence will 
be felt in every circumstance of life, and be strengthened 
as the mind advances to a fuller acquaintance with nature 
and a riper experience with the realities of human existence. 

Fifth, an education that unites intellectual, moral, and 
religious elements is the best training for citizenship. It 
levelops a sense of responsibility, a respect for authority, 
and a considerateness for the rights of others which are the 
necessary foundations of civic virtue — more necessary 
where, as in a democracy, the citizen, enjoying a larger 
freedom, has a greater obligation to govern himself. We 
are convinced that, as religion and morality are essential 
to right living and to the public welfare, both should be 
included in the work of education. 

Questions for Review 

Why do we believe in education and provide it freely? 

What are the principal uses of education? 

Whose duty is it to educate the child? 

Give the^ principles of Catholic education set forth in the Pastoral 
Letter. 

What are the grades of schools provided by public and private 
agencies? 



EDUCATION loi 

What are elementary schools? 
What are high schools? 
What is vocational education? 
Why should vocational education be provided? 
What are part time schools? 
Why are part time schools important? 

What means are provided for education after one leaves school? 
What is compulsory education? 
Why should there be compulsory education? 

Why should students study the problems of the comm.unity. the 
city, the state, and nation? 

What division of government manages the public schools? 
How are the public schools supervised? 
How is public education paid for? 

Questions tor Community Studies 

Make a survey of all the different kinds of schools in your com- 
munity. 

Find out the different vocations for which one may be trained in. 
public or private schools in your community. 

What are the requirements of the compulsory education law in your 
state? 

What officers supervise public education in your community? 

What is the total cost of education in your township or city? 

How many children are there in school? 

How many graduate from the elementary school, the high school 
and the college?. 

How many are in vocational schools? 

Are there any part time schools in daytime or evening? 

What facilities are there to study by correspondence? 



CHAPTER XV 
HEALTH PROTECTION 

"The health of the people is the wealth of the nation," 
declared an eminent statesman. A country may grow rich 
through the health and energy of its people even though 
it may be poor in other resources. A country may grow 
poor from the ill health of its people even though possessed 
of rich soils and valuable natural resources. 

The value of health to the individual needs no proof. 
Health is one of the greatest personal assets. The body 
is the temple of the soul and deserves for that reason alone 
to be carefully protected. The body is the source of energy 
to carry on work. That energy is impaired or destroyed 
by disease. Since all men must work in order to live, it 
becomes essential that the health and vigor of the body 
be sustained. 

The individual is charged with the duty of maintaining 
his own health and of protecting it so far as possible. In 
many ways a man may take care of his own health and 
keep well. He cannot always protect himself against 
disease by his own efforts. He must, therefore, join with 
his fellows to prevent sickness and the spread of disease. 
If a man eats or drinks too much, it is his own fault if he 
becomes sick. It is not usually his own fault when he 
contracts a disease from some one else. 

Prevention of Disease. — A man with a contagious 
disease by going upon the street or into public places 
endangers the health of others. It is plain that it is not 
fair to others to expose them to disease. Laws and rules 



HEALTH PROTECTION 



103 



are made by the people to protect all against the selfishness 
of one who would spread disease. It is right that a man 
who has a disease which may spread should be kept away 
from others. He is, therefore, quarantined. By quarantine 




Learning to Swim 



© Keystone View Co., Inc. 



In many cities swimming pools are provided where children are 
taught to swim under competent instruction. 



we mean that the health ofhcer places a notice on the house 
and compels the person to stay at home until he can no 
longer give the disease to others. It is a hardship upon the 



HEALTH PROTECTION 105 

man who is sick to be quarantined, but it is better that he 
should suffer than that many others should be exposed to 
disease. 

There is also great danger to health in cities on account 
of dirt and filth. One person might be so unfair as to refuse 
to clean up his yard or remove his garbage. No matter 
how careful all the rest might be, there would be danger 
of disease from some individual's neglect. In order to 
protect others, each person is required to remove those 
things which would be dangerous to health, because some 
would neglect to do such things. People provide for the 
removal of filth, garbage, and sewage so as to make health 
conditions better for all. 

. Water Supply.— Another danger to health is the water 
supply in cities and also to some extent in the country. 
Water in the country is generally secured from wells, and 
if the wells are deep enough the water is pure. There are 
also some wells in the cities, but the danger from them is 
generally so great, unless they are very deep, that the city 
people provide for waterworks and bring pure water from 
sources outside the city. They also provide for examina- 
tion of water from day to day to make sure that there are 
no disease germs in it. The water supply of a city can be 
made safe for use, and it is a matter of great neglect on the 
part of the people if disease is spread through the water 
supply. There is always danger in using water from any 
source except the regular supply. The city and state 
health departments make special tests of water to deter- 
mine its purity. 

Milk and Food Supply.— Milk is a most important food, 
especially for babies and children. The country village 

gets milk from the farms near by and there is very Httle 

danger of disease being carried in it. The milk supply of a 



io6 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



city comes from farms, perhaps hundreds of miles away. 
Milk does not keep pure for a great length of time and care 
must be taken to protect it until it is used for food. Many 
cases of serious diseases, such as t3^hoid fever, are often 
traced to the milk supply which comes from places where 
there is typhoid fever. A person cannot, by himself, make 




Ewing Galloway 



Testing Foods 



The government maintains extensive laboratories for the testing of 
various food products. This picture shows the testing of cattle feed to 
prevent fraud. 

sure that the milk supply is pure. Since it is a matter 
which is for the benefit of all people, provision is made 
by the people for the inspection of the milk and also of the 
places from which it comes. It is much safer than if left 
to chance. The lives of thousands of babies are saved 
every year by the care which is given to the milk supply. 



HEALTH PROTECTION 107 

The same may be said of the food supply. One person 
cannot make sure that the food which he buys in the city 
does not contain the germs of disease. Drugs are some- 
times used to preserve foods and they may be harmful 
when eaten. Foods kept in unhealthy places may spread 
disease. The only way to protect the people is to have 
regular inspectors, who see that all food is pure and that 
the places where it is kept are clean. The people provide 
such inspection through the city, state, and national 
government. 

Flies and Mosquitoes.— In the early springtime many 
cities and villages make a campaign to kill flies. This is 
done because it is found that flies carry disease germs from 
place to place and from person to person. If they are 
killed in the spring, the breeding of flies is checked and 
there will not be so many when the warm weather comes. 
Every one should join in such campaigns because it is for 
the benefit of all the people. If one person permits breeding 
places for flies on his premises, he will thereby permit harm 
to others. 

In some sections of the country mosquitoes are also a 
means of carrying disease. The danger from them becomes 
so serious at times that campaigns are conducted to destroy 
their breeding places. Oil is used in the swamps where 
mosquitoes breed. In the warmer countries, mosquitoes, 
which are carriers of disease, prevent important work from 
being done. It was only by killing the mosquitoes that the 
great Panama Canal could be built. The workmen died 
from malaria and yellow fever carried by mosquitoes. 

Drinking Cups and Common Towels.— Another means 
by which disease is spread is the common drinking cup or 
common towel. One person who has a contagious disease 
will leave germs of the disease on towels, cups, and soap. 



io8 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The next person who uses them may contract the disease. 
The cities and states have, therefore, in many cases stopped 
the use of common drinking cups and common towels 
because of the danger of spreading disease. 

Spitting in Public Places. — One of the bad habits which 
many people have is that of spitting. It is harmful when 
it is done in pubKc places or where there are other people. 
In cases where it does no harm, no one cares, but when it 
is done on the sidewalk, in the street car, the workroom, 
or the store it is Hkely to carry disease from one person to 
another. Many laws and rules are therefore passed by the 
people in states and cities to prevent spitting on the side- 
walks and in public places. It is for the benefit of all 
people that this is done. 

Accidents. — There are many accidents taking place 
every day on the streets and in factories. Some of these 
accidents are due to carelessness on somebody's part. An 
accident causes loss to the person who is injured, because 
he loses his wages and because it costs money for medical 
care. It also causes loss to the country, because every 
man's labor is needed. Every person should, therefore, 
be careful and join in helping all movements which prevent 
accidents. It is far better for all that the accident should 
be prevented rather than that it should be paid for after- 
ward. A person may, by being careful, prevent many 
accidents to himself. Unless all persons are careful, some 
are hkely to be injured through the fault of others. Laws 
and rules are necessary to remove the dangers of accidents 
and to prevent injury to any one by the neghgence of others. 

Health Laws Necessary. — Laws and rules compelling 
men to do certain things for the sake of health sometimes 
seem to be severe. Men think sometimes that these laws 
and rules interfere with their liberty. This is sometimes 



HEALTH PROTECTION 



109 



true. But when the hberty of one means danger to many, 
it is only fair that the Hberty of the one should be taken 
away, in this respect, for the safety of all the rest. Only 
in that way can all the people be safe from those few care- 
less and unfair persons who think about nothing except 
themselves and who never care about the welfare of others. 



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Safety Always 



In a modern plant signs in various languages warn employees of 
danger. Rails and other safeguards are also provided to prevent 
accidents. 



Health Agencies. — Health matters are looked after by 
the local, state, and national governments. Towns and 
cities have boards of health and health officers to enforce 
the health laws. Many states provide for county health 
boards and officers to protect the health of people in rural 
districts. The states have boards of health to promote 



no THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

health work throughout the state and to enforce the state 
laws regarding health. 

State and local boards of health carry on work for the 
education of the people in health matters, furnish anti- 
toxins against certain contagious diseases, and make tests 
of specimens of food, water, blood, etc., to determine 
whether contagious disease is present. 

The United States (Government maintains a public 
health service which enforces national laws against trans- 
portation of disease carriers into this country or from 
state to state. The Public Health Service carries on studies 
hi disease and helps to educate the people in ways of better 
health. 

Questions for Review 

; Why is good health important to the individual? 

Why is good health important to the nation? 

Explain by examples why it is impossible for an individual always 
to protect his health. 

What is meant by quarantine? 

Explain why quarantine is necessary. 

Why do the cities provide for sewage and garbage removal? 

Give reasons for the special protection of the water supply in cities. 
The milk supply. The food supply. 

Why should flies and mosquitoes be destroyed in the early spring? 

Explain the dangers from common drinking cups and towels. 

Why are health laws necessary? 

What government agencies protect our health? 

Questions eor Community Studies 

Gather information about the laws and rules for the protection or 
health in your community. 

How is a place quarantined? 

Get samples of notices of quarantine. 

Name all of the government agencies, local and state, which have 
to do with the protection of health in your community. 

How is the water, food, and milk supply safeguarded? 



CHAPTER XVI 

CHARITY AND GOOD WORKS 

The individual who is able-bodied is expected to take 
care of himself. There is no place for the drone in society. 
One who is able to earn his living. and does not do so has 
no claim upon the charity or good will of people. We 
strive in America to give everybody a chance to get ahead, 
and that is all that any one should expect. There are many 
calamities of hfe, however, which make it impossible for 
certain people to get ahead in the world or even to support 
themselves. A person disabled by accident, or disease, 
cannot support himself. A person who is born with mental 
or physical defects which prevent him from, self-support 
needs help from some source. The sick and the aged who 
have no means of support call for special help. Children 
left without parents or others to care for them must be pro- 
tected and helped to realize the purposes of their Creator. 

The people as a whole are devoted to charity and good 
works. They give whenever a good cause appears. They 
do helpful deeds in assisting people in distress. Human 
troubles all over the world appeal to them and great works 
of charity are built up. 

The Pastoral Letter sets forth an ideal when it says: 

Charity imposes duties which we may not disregard. To love 
thy neighbor is not simply a matter of option or a counsel which they 
may follow who aim at moral perfection; it is a divine command that 
is equally binding on all and it obligates us in thought and will, no 
less than in outward action. As commonly understood, charity is 
manifested in deeds that tend to the relief of suffering m any of its 



112 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

various forms, or that provide opportunities of advancement for those 
who have none or that add somewhat to the scant pleasures of many 
laborious lives. 

The Catholic Church has always been devoted to charity 
and good works. In this country there are many hundreds 
of hospitals, homes for children and the aged, and institu- 
tions for wayward boys and girls. The works of charity in 
all its forms are vast and place heavy burdens upon the 
Church and her people. 

Individual Breakdown. — While we expect every one to 
be self-reliant and care for himself, we know that there are 
calamities which come to individuals which place them in 
need. The person who earns his own living and happens 
to be taken sick is deprived of the means of living, and 
in addition has the extra expense of medical care. If he 
has dependents the problem is harder still, and, unless he 
has savings to fall back upon, he may be compelled to seek 
assistance. Charitable and public hospitals will provide 
a place for his physical care. His friends may help 
him to pay his living expenses; but he may find it neces- 
sary^ to ask for charitable relief from the church relief 
societies, the fraternal order to which he may belong, to 
the associated charities, or to the public authorities. All 
efforts should be made by the community to make it 
possible for the self-reliant person to be protected and 
cared for in case of illness. The same may be said of 
the person who suffers an accident, and is thus deprived of 
the means of earning a livelihood. Fortunately, those who 
suffer accidents in industry are already largely provided 
for by means of workmen's insurance. 

Unemployment. — Another great cause for individual 
breakdown is unemployment or the failure of a person to 
secure work from which he may earn a living. In bad times 



CHARITY AND GOOD WORKS 113 

in this country thousands of people are out of employment 
and cannot provide for their support. It is a sad thing 
when men who want to work can find no work to do, and 
are compelled to ask for assistance. The community 
attempts by means of employment bureaus to find work 
for all men. Sometimes special work is started, such as 
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Courtesy of St. Vincent's Hospital 

Caring for the Sick 

In the children's ward of St. Vincent's Hospital, New York. There 
are over six hundred Catholic hospitals in this country conducted by- 
various sisterhoods. 

more people, but many times the workers are compelled 
to seek relief from organizations, or the public, to tide 
themselves over until business revives and employment 
can be found. 

Dependent Old Age. — When the worker reaches the 
age when his labor is no longer efficient he faces the problem 



114 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



of providing for the years which he has yet to Kve. If he has 
been thrifty and has not suffered any serious calamities of 
sickness or unemployment he may possibly have saved 
enough to take care of himself and his dependents for the 
rest of his life. He may perhaps have children upon whom 
he may lean for. support. If he does not have property or 
children to support him, he is forced to accept charity. 
The Church provides charity to the aged to a large extent, 




© Ewing Galloway 



Care of the Disabled 



The printers' union takes care of its disabled members in this beautiful 
institution located at Colorado Springs. 

and thousands are being thus aided. Those who do not 
have such care are forced to accept the charity of the pubhc 
almshouse, where they are provided with the means of 
livelihood. The sad picture of old people who have lived 
honorable lives and yet are compelled to accept charity 
has caused many to think of . the possibility of old-age 



CHARITY AND GOOD WORKS 115 

pensions. Under the pension plan the pubKc would pay 
to worthy aged people enough to enable them to live in 
their old homes, or among their friends, during their last 
years. Several European countries, as well as Austraha and 
New Zealand, have provided such pensions and the matter 
has been discussed and investigated in this country. 

Moral Breakdown. — The individual sometimes causes 
his own breakdown by vice. The drunkard destroys his 
own physical being and deprives himself of t«he power to 
work. The drug fiend does the same and makes himself a 
helpless dependent. Others by one vice or another destroy 
their strength of body and of character and become more 
or less useless. Disease takes hold of such people more 
readily and adds to their helplessness. The community 
is charitable even to these and provides at least for their 
care. It takes account of the things which cause these 
conditions of helplessness and tries to prevent such con- 
ditions by building up character and removing the causes. 
Child Dependency. — The care of dependent children has 
always been one of the most approved charities. A helpless 
baby or small child makes an appeal to every one. He is 
not helpless through any fault of his own. Perhaps the 
parents are dead; perhaps they have deserted the child, or 
are unfit to raise him. In any case the welfare of a child 
appeals to all and provisions are made everywhere for the 
protection, care, and education of children thus left depend- 
ent. The Church and church organizations provide homes 
for dependent children and secure the adoption by, or the 
placing of children in the homes of, good people. The 
health and education of such children are carefully looked 
after and they are given the same chance in the world as 
those who have not been deprived of the care of parents. 
These benefactors stand in the place of the parents in the 



ii6 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

care of the child. They do not permit the parent to escape 
his responsibility if he can be found, but they consider that 
the care of the child must not be neglected. 

Helping People to Help Themselves. — The best kind of 
charity is that which tends to place a person in a position 
to help himself. Modern charity is directed to that end. 
It is far better to find work for a man than to support him 
in idleness. It is far better to place a man in a hospital and 
restore him to health than it is to leave him as an invalid, 
and pay for his care. It is better to provide means by 
which the aged may care for themselves through insurance 
or pensions than to leave them to the unhappiness of 
dependent old age. 

It is better to provide for the prevention of evil condi- 
tions than to take care of the wrecks which such conditions 
cause. 

The modern social worker tries, therefore, to prevent the 
conditions which cause the necessity for charity . and to 
place people in a position to help themselves. It is not 
charity to feed the lazy man, or the man who will not try. 
It is necessary to prevent fraud on the part of those who 
seek charity, and to give charity only to those to whom it is 
due. In the large cities of our country it is necessary to 
provide means to prevent men from cheating by living on 
the charity of noble people. 

Questions for Review 

When should a person be helped by our charity? 

What does the Catholic Church do for people in distress? 

Give reasons why people are sometimes unable to support them- 
selves. 

Why not expect every one by thrift to have enough to take care of 
himself? 

What are the agencies to which people in distress may apply? 



CHARITY AND GOOD WORKS 117 

What agencies of relief help the person who is sick? 

How are people who have had an accident cared for? 

What are the causes of unemployment? 

Why do we owe special help to those who cannot find work? 

Why are employment bureaus supported by the public? 

How are the dependent aged cared for by the Church and by the 
public? 

What are old-age pensions? 

Should a person be helped who has injured himself by vice? 

How are dependent children cared for? 

Why do we take special care of the dependent child? 

What do we mean by the expression "helping people to help them- 
selves " ? Give examples. 

Questions for Community Studies 

Find out and describe the agencies which help the sick in your 
community. 

Describe the agencies for the injured, the aged, unemployed, children. 
In what way are the people in distress helped to help themselves? 
Find out all of the Catholic agencies for the care of dependents. 



CHAPTER XVII 
DELINQUENCY AND CORRECTION 

In providing for the common welfare and protection, 
necessary rules are laid down. No one would dispute the 
idea that such rules must be obeyed. If rules are not 
obeyed it would be useless to make them. When a person 
takes the property of another or causes him physical injury; 
when he breaks the rules which have been laid down to 
protect people against disease or accident; or when he 
interferes in any way with the lawful rights of another, he 
breaks the law and is subject to punishment. 

Each law fixes the punishment for any one who violates 
it, and there is an old principle which says that "ignorance 
of the law excuses no one." In other words, one who breaks 
the law cannot plead that he did not know he was doing so. 

Reasonable punishments are now applied to all crimes, 
consisting mostly of fines and imprisonment. Many 
minor crimes are punishable by a fine. Many of the more 
serious crimes are punishable by imprisonment, while 
still graver crimes are punishable by imprisonment and 
a fine. Those who commit the more serious crimes are 
also deprived of their right to vote and hold office. 

In earlier times punishment for crime was far more 
severe than it is now. There was a time when over two 
hundred crimes in England were punishable by death. In 
the early days in this country several crimes were punish- 
able by death. To-day only the crimes of murder and 
treason are so punishable, and in several states the death 
penalty is never inflicted. 

ii8 



I20 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Child Delinquency. — In earlier times the child who com- 
mitted a crime was treated like an adult and suffered the 
same penalties. Within recent times this attitude has 
changed and the child criminal is not treated with the 
severity of former days. He is looked upon as being too 
young to know the meaning of his acts. He is generally 
placed under probation and is given another chance. In 
most of the states, children who have committed crimes are 
brought before a special court — the Juvenile Court — so 
that they will not be treated as real criminals, or come in 
contact with them. If, after a fair chance is given to the 
child, he fails to play fair he is sent to an institution for 
wayward children. Here he is confined, but is given a 
chance to go to school and learn a trade. He is also brought 
under the influence of religion, and of good men and women. 
As soon as he can be trusted he is allowed his freedom. 
Children are to-day given every chance to make amends 
for the evil deeds which they have committed and to lead 
good lives and prepare for future work. 

Reformation. — Young men and women who have com- 
mitted crimes are also treated differently than the older 
criminals. It is believed by all that they should have a 
chance to reform. Most states, therefore, have provided 
special institutions, called reformatories, to which youthful 
criminals are sent. Opportunities are given for educational 
and rehgious improvement, and for preparation for some 
vocation. Greater freedom is granted in the hope that 
the prisoners may develop self-reliance and responsibility. 
Usually youths under thirty are sent to reformatories. 

Penitentiaries.^ — The older criminals are sent to state's 
prisons or pentitentiaries. Penitentiaries are filled with 
the more hardened criminals, for whom there is less chance 
of reformation. Efforts are made even in penitentiaries to 



DELINQUENCY AND CORRECTION 121 

give the prisoners a chance to make as much as possible 
of their wasted lives, and to prepare them to be better 
workers when they return again to society. Many forms of 
prison labor are provided, including woodworking, machine 
shop, and farming pursuits. The influence of religion, 
education, and recreation is brought to bear at every 
opportunity to help such men. 




Courtesy of Auburn Prison 



A Prison School 



The government tries to make useful citizens of prisoners by provid- 
ing schools for them in the prisons and reformatories. 

Probation and Parole. — When a person is convicted of a 
crime, and the judge beheves that he deserves another 
chance, he may be placed on probation. This means that 
he will not be sent to prison, so long as he conducts himself 
properly. He makes regular reports to a probation officer, 



122 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

who observes his conduct. Finally, if his record is good, he 
is released entirely. 

When a man has been sentenced to prison and has served 
part of his sentence he may be paroled; that is, he may be 
allowed to leave the prison, but is not discharged. While 
he is on parole he must make regular reports, the same as 
a person on probation. If he conducts himself properly he 
does not have to return to prison. If he does not he may 
be taken back to prison at any time for violation of his 
parole. In several states, there has been passed what is 
called an ''indeterminate sentence" law, under which 
prisoners are sentenced for not less than a given number of 
years and not more than a given number of years. When a 
person has served the minimum time he may be released 
on parole, if his conduct has been good. 

Humane Treatment of Prisoners. — Prisons have become 
more and more humane during the last few years. Formerly 
prisoners were treated with great severity. They were 
cast into solitary confinement for the slightest offense. No 
opportunities were afforded for education, religion, or 
recreation. They were kept at hard manual labor in some 
states and their labor was sold to contractors who derived 
profit from it. They were even chained together and 
worked in gangs on the highways. There are some in- 
stances of this inhumane treatment yet, but in the main, 
prisoners are treated with more consideration. They are 
given many opportunities for their own improvement. 
More of the men are trusted, and more of them respond to 
the trust placed in them. Religious services and recreation 
are commonly provided. Self-government is being tried 
and greater efforts are made at reformation than ever before. 

Federal and State Prisons. — Most of the prisons are 
conducted under state laws. These include state 



DELINQUENCY AND CORRECTION 123 

penitentiaries, reformatories, industrial schools for youth, 
and county and city jails or workhouses. Most of the offenses 
are against state laws; therefore, most of the criminals are 
in local and state jails and prisons. The federal government 
maintains penitentiaries for the persons who violate federal 
laws and who are to serve long terms. Usually arrange- 




Coiiriesy oj Sing Sing Prison 

Prison Workshop 

Prisoners are taught useful trades so that they can follow honorable 
occupations when released. 

ments are made with the state and local authorities for the 
use of local jails for federal prisoners who are sentenced for 
brief periods. 

Questions for Review 

Why must rules or laws be obeyed? 

Should a person be punished when he is ignorant of the fact that 
he has broken a law? 

How is crime punished? 

What crimes, if any, are punishable by death in your state? 



124 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Why are children who have broken laws treated differently than 
others? 

What is the juvenile court? 

What are reformatories? 

Why are younger men and women who have broken the law sent to 
reformatories? 

What means are used to help persons in prison to reform and lead 
better lives? 

What is probation? What is parole? 

Why are probation and parole adopted? 

What cruel forms of punishment were formerly inflicted? 

What newer forms of humane treatment are provided? 

What prisons are run by state and local officials and what by federal 
officials? 

Questions tor Community Studies 

What punishments are inflicted in your community and state? 

Do you have a probation and parole system? If so, find out just 
how it is conducted. 

Do you have a juvenile court? Have the workings of the court 
explained. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
UNFAIR PRACTICES 

Preventing Fraud. — One of the principal objects which 
people desire to accomphsh in the management of their 
affairs is protection against unfair practices and the pre- 
vention of fraud. Most men and women desire to be fair 
because it is the best policy. They see that if unfairness is 
permitted toward any one, they, too, may suffer. There 
are many people, however, who try to take advantage of 
others, who try to get things which do not belong 
to them, and who keep others* from having the things 
which are rightfully theirs. Laws and rules are passed 
to protect against unfair practices and to punish fraud. 
There are so many ways in which unfairness and fraud 
may be carried on that these evils often exist in spite 
of the law. 

Of course, if a man steals outright, or if he does harm to 
any one, he is punished. It is usually difficult, however, to 
find a way to punish a man when he steals from another by 
means of unfair dealing. 

Monopoly. — The most common form of unfairness is 
the control by selfish persons of the things which people 
need. This is often brought about by monopoly. One 
person or a few persons get control of a product and are 
then able to dictate what the consumers must pay. 

A monopoly is secured by ownership or control of the raw 
materials; by controlling the manufacture; or by securing 
control of the supply for sale. However it is secured the 
people are placed at the mercy of the monopolists. If 

125 



126 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

the goods monopolized happen to be necessities of life, 
the situation is serious for the consumer. 

The evils of monopoly have been so plain to all people 
that laws to prevent monopoly have been passed by the 
states, and also by the nation. The Federal Trade Com- 
mission has power to investigate unfair practices in buying 
and selling goods, and the laws punish the dishonest dealer. 




Keystone View Co., Inc. 

Testing Weights and Measures 

Government inspectors regularly examine the scales and measures 
used in selling goods to see that the people are not being cheated. 

Discrimination. — It is an American ideal that all persons 
should be treated alike and that special favors should not 
be given to any one. It is not considered fair play 
when one person is given advantages over another or when 
one person is charged less for goods or service than the rest. 
Some years ago railroads gave passes to favorites. They 



UNFAIR PRACTICES 



127 



also gave what were called rebates — that is, they charged 
the same rates but returned a part of the money received 
from their favorites. These practices did not give fair play 
to all and they were finally stopped by law. The same was 
true in certain cities where favorites were given free service 
by telephone, water, and gas companies, and street railways. 
These practices have been prohibited almost everywhere 
because they are not fair. 

False Weights and Measures. — One of the common ways 
of fraud is to use short weights and measures in the sale of 
goods. The scales used for weighing are fixed so that while 
thsy appear to give a pound, they actually give less. The 
purchaser is charged for a full pound. Measures are some- 
times made so that they seem to hold a quart or a peck when 
they actually hold less. This is simply a form of stealing, 
but it is so difficult to prevent that state and city laws 
have been passed creating departments of weights and 
measures, whose duties are to test all weights and measures 
to see that they are correct. If a man uses short weights or 
short measures, their duty is to arrest and punish him. 

There are other kinds of short measures which people do 
not always think of as such, but which are really forms of 
stealing. If a man is hired for a day's work and shirks on 
the job, he is stealing from his employer. If an employer 
overworks his men, or pays less than a fair wage, he is 
stealing from them. 

Imitation and Adulteration. — It is also a fraud to sell 
goods which are not as good as they are represented. There 
are many imitations which only an expert can see. There 
are some cheap materials which are used in place 
of good materials, such as imitation silks, gold, and 
silver. Old rubber is sometimes used in the manufacture 
of rubber goods. Such practices are methods of stealing. 



128 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

A common form of cheating is in the sale of adulterated 
food, drugs, fertilizers, cattle feed, and seed. By selling 
colored water for drugs, sand for fertilizer, or sawdust for 
cattle feed, great profits are reaped by the rascals who thus 
cheat the people. The evils have become so serious that 
the government inspects foods, drugs, fertilizers, seeds, 
cattle feed, and other articles to determine their purity. 

Fraudulent Banking and Insurance. — The banking busi- 
ness has grown up in this* country as a great service to the 
people. A bank is a place where people may leave their 
money and have it protected. While it is protected it is 
earning interest. It is also providing the means by which 
the business of the community is run. Good banking 
benefits the man who deposits money, the banker, and the 
whole community. Banking is generally safe because it is 
constantly inspected by the government. 

There are persons who use the good name of banking to 
give them a chance to steal. They do this by using the 
depositors' money for their own purpose. Sometimes such 
men escape the careful watching of the people's repre- 
sentatives. Laws are passed which punish men who steal. 
While the law punishes such men, people should be careful 
to select good banks for the deposit of their money. The 
people provide their own postal savings bank through the 
post ofhce in which any one may safely deposit his money. 

Insurance schemes are also started sometimes by fakers. 
After paying money for years the policyholder may find 
that the insurance company cannot pay for the losses which 
he suffers. Insurance companies are inspected by the 
government, but fraudulent practices among them some- 
times escape detection. 

Blue Sky Frauds. — Another kind of fraud is found in the 
sale of fake stocks and bonds, and of lands which do not 



UNFAIR PRACTICES 129 

exist, or which are under water or otherwise useless. These 
are usually called " blue sky " frauds because it is like selling 
a place in the blue sky. Generally these are plain forms of 
stealing. The men who sell such stocks, bonds, and lands 
know they have no value and yet take the money of inno- 
cent people and give nothing in return. There are cases 
of such sales by men who did not know that they were 
worthless, or by men who were poor business men and did not 
use common sense in their plans. Sometimes also the men 
may have been honest in their ideas, but have failed in carry- 
ing them out. The investors lose money in all such cases. 

There are laws to protect people in these matters, but 
clever men are sometimes able to get around the law. All 
people should be warned against investing money in any- 
thing which they do not know about, cr upon which they 
have not had good business advice. 

They should know that they are taking a chance if they 
invest in a new enterprise. They should know that they 
take a very great chance in buying an interest in lands or 
enterprises which they have never seen. In all cases if 
they wish to invest they should look to the character of 
the promoters and depend only upon honorable and ex- 
perienced men and women. 

Employment Frauds. — Men are sometimes cheated also 
by others who pretend that they can get jobs for them upon 
the payment of a part of their wages each week. It is 
pretended that a worker will be discharged unless he pays 
money. No man needs to pay anything for the right to 
work. All such cases should be reported to the employer 
or to the public authorities. 

There are other ways in which people are cheated, such 
as selling fake st-eamship and railroad tickets, or charging 
more than the fixed price. The examples given show enough 



I30 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

of the ways in which fraud is committed. The object which 
every one should seek is to make it impossible for men to 
succeed at such frauds and to punish them for this kind of 
stealing, just the same as any person should be punished 
if he took the same number of dollars directly out of a 
man's pocket. Because it is so difficult to do this, it is well 
that people be prudent in their business dealings, trusting 
only those who are worthy of trust. 

Questions for Review 

What is meant by monopoly? 

How are monopolies obtained? 

What is meant by discrimination? 

Is it fair to charge different prices to different people? 

Why do people find it necessary to pass laws to prevent fraud? 

What is the need for laws to prevent short weights and measures? 

Name different kinds of short weights and measures. 

Why do we need public inspectors of weights and measures? 

What is adulteration of food and drugs? What articles are some- 
times adulterated? 

Why is it desirable to have testing of foods, drugs, fertilizers, cattle 
feed, etc., in public laboratories? 

What are blue sky frauds? Give examples. 

How can we prevent such frauds? Give other examples of fraud. 

In what ways do fraudulent employment agencies cheat workers? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Find out what has been done by your state and community to 
prevent monopoly and discriminations. 

What officials inspect weights and measures and how do they carry 
on their work? 

How are foods, drugs, fertilizers, cattle feed, etc., inspected? 

Discuss the statement that the buyer of goods should look out for 
himself and not depend upon public inspections to prevent fraud. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THRIFT AND SAVINGS 

We have seen that the individual sometimes breaks down 
on account of sickness, accident, unemployment, and old 
age. Many times the breakdown could have been prevented 
if the individual had spent his income wisely and saved the 
remainder for the rainy day. People too often treat their 
income as though it were going to be the same or more 
for the rest of their lives. They forget that sickness, 
accident, unemployment, and old age may deprive them of 
the ability to work. Unless they are able to lay aside 
something in the good days they will have nothing to help 
themselves over the bad days. Unless they think in terms 
of their lifetime they are apt to have no more than enough 
to last them until old age compels them to quit work. Thrift 
consists in the wise spending of what one earns and the 
saving of the remainder for the future times of need. 

Thrift is important to the individual and the community. 
Cardinal Gibbons in one of his last public utterances spoke 
strongly for economy and thrift: 

I would name economy — ^thrift — as one of the most vital assets 
in success. The law of God is the law of thrift and no man 
transgresses that law either in his personal or business affairs without 
incurring a penalty. . . . The economy of God is one of the 
striking features of the universe. Have you ever stopped to think of 
it? Not a single dead leaf is wasted; it goes to enrich the soil for 
future growth. Not a drop of water that is not used again and again — 
flowing down the river to the sea only to be caught up by the sun 
and showered down upon the grass and trees again. . . . Waste 
nothing as nature wastes nothing; expect some bad years as 

131 



132 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

nature expects them and provides for them by other years of 
abundance. 

Wise and Unwise Thrift. — The thrifty person will pro- 
vide first for a comfortable living for himself and family. 
It is not thrift to deprive one's self or dependents of neces- 
sary food, clothing, and shelter. The worker who deprives 
himself of proper food in order to save is merely shortening 
his working life. It is not thrift to deprive one's children 
of proper care and education merely to save money. The 
loss in the long run is greater than the savings. Instead of 
depriving himself of the necessities of hfe the individual 
should strive to make what he has go as far as possible. If 
he has spent his income wisely and there is a balance left, 
that balance should be saved for future uses. 

Thrift and the Community. — The advantages of thrift 
come to the community as well as to the individual. The 
savings of people provide capital to carry on business. If 
no one saved there would be no accumulation of capital to 
develop mines, farms, factories, and railroads. The com- 
bined savings of all provide the community with the money 
and goods needed for further production. 

Protecting Savings. — When one has saved money, the 
next problem is to invest it so that it will be safe and at 
the same time earn an income for the owner. The danger 
of loss is great and special care most be taken to prevent it. 
There are many agencies both public and private to care 
for the savings of individuals. 

The School Bank. — In order to teach thrift to children 
many schools have started school savings banks. The 
children are encouraged to save their pennies and deposit 
them in the school bank. Such banks are conducted like 
regular savings banks. The children learn much about 
business methods through these banks. Their savings 



THRIFT AND SAVINGS 



133 



draw interest and increase, thus giving encouragement for 
greater efforts to save. The children who have had the 
advantage of school banks derive great benefits from the 
lessons in thrift and saving gained by practice. 

Postal Savings Bank.— The United States Government 
has provided for postal savings banks which may be used 
by all people. Anyone may deposit money in these banks 
by applying at the 
post office. 

It takes only one 

dollar to start an 

account. The gov- 
ernment pays a small 

rate of interest and 

guarantees safety. 

Back of the postal 

savings bank stands 

the pledge of the 

United States Gov- 
ernment. There is 

no better security 

on earth. 

Savings Banks. — 

Savings banks have 

been organized all 

over the country. 

These banks receive 

the savings of the 

people. They pay interest at a fair rate to the owner and 

invest the money safely. The owner may draw out his 
savings at any time by giving notice some time in advance. 
Savings banks are inspected by pubHc officials to msure 
sound and honest conduct of business. 




© Brown Bros. 



A School Bank 



A bank supported and operated by the 
pupils, not only encourages the habit of 
thrift, but also provides practical experience 
in banking operations. 



134 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Thrift and War Savings Stamps. — During the war the 
federal government developed some new methods to en- 
courage people to save and help win the war. Thrift Stamps 
and War Savings Stamps were sold and these were widely 
bought by all people, and especially children. The savings 
of millions of people thus helped to provide the necessary 
money to conduct the war. The Thrift Stamps were ex- 
changeable for War Savings Stamps and the government 
agreed to pay back the amount in five years with interest. 
The plan worked so well that it has been made permanent. 
The government now offers the opportunity to purchase 
Thrift Stamps and United States Treasury Savings Certifi- 
cates on the same plan. The credit of the whole United 
States is back of the stamps and certificates and no invest- 
ment could be safer. 

Building and Loan Associations. — Among the useful 
agencies which help people to save and invest their savings 
are the building and loan associations. Such associations 
may be found in nearly every city and town. They receive 
the savings of people and loan the money to those who wish 
to build homes. These associations are beneficial because 
they encourage home owning as well as saving. They are 
inspected and supervised by public officials to see that they 
are soundly and honestly conducted. 

Investment of Savings. — It is not an easy matter to 
invest one's savings to the best advantage. The average 
person does not have the necessary experience to select 
safe and sound investments. He may invest unwisely 
and lose his savings. Clever frauds are sometimes worked 
on people by unscrupulous tricksters. The results of 
such frauds should teach people to be careful with their 
savings. 

The school bank, savings banks, postal savings banks, and 



THRIFT AND SAVINGS i35 

building and loan associations invest savings safely and 
thus take away the risk of loss. 

When one wishes to invest his own savings he should 
seek safety and a fair return in the form of interest. Invest- 
ment in a home is always a desirable one. Government 
bonds offer entire safety and a fair return. Other kinds of 
bonds are generally safe and give a good return. Alluring 
promises of large interest or profit should be carefully 
examined. No such investment should be made without 
experienced business advice. 

Questions for Review 

What is thrift? Why is it important to the individual? 

Why is thrift important to the community? 

What kinds of thrift are unwise? 

Describe the school bank plan. 

What is the postal savings bank? 

Explain the uses of the savings bank. 

What are building and loan associations? 

How are savings protected? 

Mention some good forms of investment. 

Questions for Community Studies 
Name all of the kinds of savings institutions in your community. 
Obtain full details of the workings of the postal savings bank, 

school banks, saving banks. 

Obtain full details of the plan of operation of a building and loan 

association in your community. 



CHAPTER XX 
SAVING NATURAL RESOURCES 

We depend upon certain natural resources for many 
of the things which we need. It is necessary to prevent 
waste if we are to continue to have a supply, and if the 
future generations are to benefit as we do. Coal is essential 
as fuel to heat our houses and to run the factories and 
railroads. Petroleum is essential to hght homes and supply 
fuel for gasoline, and other oil burning, engines. Copper 
and platinum are essential in electrical work. Iron and 
wood are necessary in almost every kind of enterprise. 
The supply of all these products is limited and we should 
save by making the most of what we have. 

Some of the products we depend upon, such as coal and 
petroleum, cannot be replaced; they are destroyed by use. 
Other materials, such as wood, may be replaced by tree 
planting and forestry. We should prevent waste of such 
resources in every case, and we should make provision for 
a continued supply of those that can be replaced. 

Fair play to the future generations demands that we 
shall not permit waste of those substances which are a gift 
to all the people of all generations. We have a right to use 
what we need of the resources of the earth, but it is not 
fair to use more than we need or to waste any. 

Coal. — The supply of coal in the earth is limited and at 
the present rate of increase in its use the supply will not 
last for another century. Already many of the most easily 
worked veins of coal are exhausted. 

The waste of coal has been very great. It is estimated 

136 



SAVING NATURAL RESOURCES 



137 



that for every ton of coal taken from the mines a ton and 
a half has been wasted. This waste has occurred because 




© Underwood and Underwood 

A Coal Mine 
Miners are here shown at work far underground in a coal mine 
near Scranton, Pa. 

of faulty methods of mining and because the better seams 
were mined and the rest left to cave in. The waste of coal 
has also taken place in the use of faulty processes in the 



138 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



manufacture of coke. Coal has been wasted very often 
by its use in badly constructed engines. 

We are dependent upon the use of coal for many of the 
necessities and comforts of Kfe. When the supply is cut off 
even for a few days factories shut down and people suffer. 
We need to realize its vital importance and preserve 
the supply. 




HSer Chamoer of (commerce 



An Oil Town 



This view of Ranger, Texas, shows temporary dwellings for laborers 
employed at the oil fields which can be seen in the distance. 



Petroleum and Natural Gas. — The supply of petroleum 
is very limited and probably will not last longer than a half 
century. Within a few years the supply will begin to be 
greatly diminished and unless substitutes are found serious 
results will happen. 

Petroleum and its products now run the gasoline engines 
used in motor cars, manufacturing, farm power, and for 
other purposes. If the supply were suddenly cut off severe 
hardships would result. Our aim should be to use the supply 



SAVING NATURAL RESOURCES 139 

with great care and to provide by experiments for sub- 
stitutes which can be secured at low cost. 

The supply of natural gas is already about exhausted. It 
was used wastefully with shameless disregard of rights. 
Those who allowed it to go to waste cannot repair the 
damage they have done. If it had been carefully used, it 
might have lasted for several generations. 

Iron, Copper, and Other Minerals. — Iron is the most 
important and widely used mineral. Its supply is limited 
and should be carefully guarded and preserved. Copper 
has come to have very great importance because of its use 
in the electrical industry. If the supply of copper were to 
be cut off the electrical industry would be crippled to a 
large degree. We need to preserve the supply we have and 
prevent its waste. 

Platinum is another mineral that has come to have great 
value because of its use in the electrical industry. The 
supply is very Hmited and must be preserved. Lead and 
zinc are two minerals used largely in paint making which 
have come to be of great importance. The supply needs to 
be preserved and waste prevented because both lead and 
2inc are destroyed in the processes in which they are used. 

Wood Products. — The use of wood is so universal that 
its importance scarcely needs discussion. We depend upon 
wood for many of our most vital needs. We have been 
very wasteful of wood products because the supply has 
seemed to have no limit. The destruction has gone on 
until the supply of wood products is limited to a few areas, 
some of which are at a great distance from the market. 

There has. been great waste in cutting trees, and the 
losses from forest fires have been enormous. Fortunately, 
wood products may be suppHed continually by a proper 
pohcy of forestry. If we give attention to the subject 



SAVING NATURAL RESOURCES 



141 



carefully we may continue to produce enough to last for all 
time on lands which would otherwise be largely useless. 

The state and national governments have both done a 
great deal to preserve forests and to encourage tree planting. 
They have also done much to prevent the spread of forest 
fires by patroUing forest lands and by punishing those who 
start fires in forests. 




Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

Soil Erosion 

Soil is being continually worn away by water. This view shows 
fertile land ruined by erosion. 

Soils. — The soil contains the mineral and vegetable 
substances which produce agricultural crops. If those sub- 
stances are removed and are not replaced the soil becomes 
useless. If soils are allowed to grow poor continuously, 
there will come a time when not enough food products 
can be raised to feed the people. 

It is important that farmers learn to preserve the fertility 
of the soil. This can be done by planting different crops in 



142 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

successive years, because- some crops put into the soil 
certain elements which others take out. The strength of 
the soil can be increased by the use of fertilizers which put 
back into the soil the elements which plants use. The 
agricultural schools, colleges, and experiment stations have 
been for a good many years discovering how to preserve 
soils and have been teaching the farmers how to put these 




Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Commerce 

Fish Hatchery 

The government promotes the hatching of fish in order to keep the 
streams supplied for the benefit of the people. 

discoveries into practice. The people of to-day owe a duty 
to the coming generations. We must keep the soil, upon 
which all must depend for a living, from having its fertility 
destroyed. 

Birds, Game, and Fish. — The protection of wild birds is 
a splendid form of conservation, because birds prevent the 
spread of insect pests which destroy plant life. We have 



SAVING NATURAL RESOURCES 143 

laws in most of the states which protect wild birds and we 
have a national law which prevents harm to birds when 
they are migrating from state to state. 

The supply of fish in our streams is also a matter of im- 
portance, because fish is an important item of food. The 
government provides fish hatcheries which continually 
keep up the supply of fish for the streams and lakes. We 
have laws prohibiting fishing in certain seasons. 

The supply of game is kept up by the laws which prevent 
the killing of game, birds, and animals in certain seasons. 
The supply of game and birds is increased by creating game 
preserves and by promoting the breeding of animals and 
birds. 

Human Resources. — Most important of all is the need to 
preserve the powers of man himself. It is of httle value if 
we preserve the natural resources of the earth and do not 
keep ourselves fit to enjoy them. The best kind of con- 
servation is that which keeps people strong and healthy, 
prevents sickness and accident, and takes care to restore 
those who suffer from disabilities. We need to have good 
conditions under which to live and work, and every person 
should be protected against the harm which comes from 
disease and accident. Children especially should be pro- 
tected in their early years and should be kept from labor 
harmful to their physical welfare. 

Questions for Review 

What are natural resources? Why are they important? 

Name the most important natural resources. Why is each impor- 
tant? 

What are the principal uses of coal? 

How has coal been wasted? 

What should be done to save coal? 

What are the uses of petroleum and natural gas? 

What should be done to save petroleum and natural gas? 



144 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

What substitutes may be found for petroleum? 

What are the uses of iron? Copper? Platinum? Lead? Zinc? 

What are the principal uses of wood products? 

Why should attention be paid to forestry? 

In what ways are wood products wasted? 

Why should steps be taken to prevent insect pests? Forest fires? 

Why is the preservation of the soil important? 

How are soils exhausted? 

How are soils restored? 

Why should we protect birds, fish, and game? 

What are human resources? 

Why should we take steps to prevent disease? Accidents? 

Why should special measures be taken to protect children? 

Questions tor Community Studies 

Make a study of the principal uses of coal, petroleum, wood prod- 
ucts, iron, copper, lead, and zinc in your community and show what 
would happen if the supply were exhausted. 

What steps are being taken to save these resources? 

What are the laws to protect birds, fish, and game in your com- 
munity? 

Gather all the local information about the work done to preserve 
soils. 

What are the laws relating to child labor in your state? 

Collect examples of safety first work. 



CHAPTER XXI 

RURAL PROBLEMS 

Rural problems center around the business of agricul- 
ture. When we speak of the rural problem we think in 
terms of the condition of those who live on the farm and of 
the condition of the business of farming itself. 

Agriculture is the basic industry of the country. The 
farm produces the foodstuffs and the materials for clothing. 
Since agriculture is so important to our industries, the 
conditions under which it is carried on should have the 
closest attention. 

Trend Away from the Country.— During the last forty 
years there has been a marked trend of the people away 
from the country to the city. The tendency has been 
increased lately until less than half of the people of the 
United States now live in the country. It is plain that if 
this tendency continues the country will not have enough 
people on the farms to supply the necessary foodstuffs to 
feed all of the people, unless the processes of agriculture 
are greatly improved. 

Part of the tendency to go to the city is due to the fact 
that fewer people are needed on the farm to-day than 
formerly. Improved farm machinery has made it possible 
for one man to do the work which required several men 
under the conditions of fifty years ago. This is true in all 
kinds of farming. 

The most common reason for the tendency of men to 
leave the farm for the city is that people think they have 
better opportunities to get ahead in the city than in the 



145 



146 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



country. It is true that for some there are more advan- 
tages, and it is true also that more comforts of hfe are 
secured by those who succeed in the city than for the ma- 
jority of those who remain in the country. The city pro- 
vides more opportunities for education, social affairs, and 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 

A Modern Farm 

This view of a large, well-kept farm shows the ideal surroundings of 
farm life. Modern farm machinery has made farming much easier. 

recreation. It also has more of the superficial things of life, 
which bHnd the people to the more substantial advantages 
of the country. The advantages of the country consist of 
greater independence, more healthful surroundings, the 
greater possibility of home ownership, and fewer evil con- 
ditions than confront the city dwellers. It is probable that 
if the rank and file of people who leave the farm for the city 
were able to see economic and social advantages in the 
country equal to those of the city, they would prefer to 
remain on the farm. 



RURAL PROBLEMS 147 

The rural problem is that of making agriculture more 
productive and profitable, and conveniences and comforts 
in country Hfe more universal. The rural problem hes in 
the providing of better opportunities for education, both 
of a general and of an agricultural character; better oppor- 
tunities for religious observance; better roads for the 
farmers' business and pleasure; more money made available 
to be borrowed by farmers to finance the operations of 
farms; and a system of marketing through which the 
farmer may receive a larger proportion of what he produces. 

What the Government Does for the Farmer.— The 
government has already provided on a large scale for the 
education of people in agriculture. This has been done 
through agricultural schools and colleges, experiment 
stations, extension divisions, county agents of agriculture, 
and studies and pubHcations of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

The Department of Agriculture.— The Department of 
Agriculture was created in 1887 for the purpose of gathering 
information and issuing publications which would aid 
farmers in their work. Many duties have been added 
from time to time and the Department of Agriculture 
now spends milHons of dollars in studying soils, improving 
seed, giving weather reports, studying marketing and 
business methods for the farmer, and pubHshing leaflets, 
pamphlets, and books of information of use to those engaged 
in agriculture. Several of the states maintain departments 
of agriculture which do similar work within the state. 

Agricultural Colleges.— While we were in the midst of 
the Civil War the federal government passed a law granting 
large areas of pubhc land to the different states for the 
purpose of maintaining schools of agriculture. Under this 
law every state in the Union estabHshed an agricultural 



148 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

college for the training of young men and women in the 
science and art of agriculture. Many thousands of people 
have gone through these colleges and have become farmers 
and scientific investigators of farm and home problems. 

Experiment Stations. — Those who were interested in 
agricultural problems soon found that one of the great 
needs was to test soils and crops in various communities, 
and to actually demonstrate the growth of crops. The 
national government promoted this by giving aid to the 
states, and the states established experiment stations, 
which are usually conducted in connection with the agricul- 
tural colleges. Experiment stations have shown by actual 
test what could be done with different kinds of soil and 
with different kinds of crops. New kinds of crops have 
been introduced into various states after experiments 
have shown that they could be successfully grown. 

Extension Work. — After the work of agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations had been developed it was seen 
that the next step was to get the results of the experiments 
into the hands of the farmers in such way that the farmers 
would use them. It did little good to learn facts about 
agriculture unless those facts were actually used by farmers 
to produce crops. The states and the nation in coopera- 
tion, therefore, started a system of farmers' institutes, 
where the science and art of agriculture were demonstrated 
and where trained speakers told the farmers of the new 
experiments. The next step was the provision for county 
agents who go from farm to farm to help the farmer with 
his problems. 

Good Roads and the Farm. — All people are interested in 
good roads because they depend upon roads for the trans- 
portation of the means of livelihood. The farmer is, how- 
ever, most directly concerned. It is the farmer who must 



RURAL PROBLEMS 149 

drive through the mud of bad roads. He is the one who is 
shut off from the world by impassable roads and who loses 
money because he cannot haul his goods to market in cer- 
tain seasons. The automobile and motor truck have been a 
great boon to the farmer, but without good roads he must 
remain shut in for long periods. 

The movement for good roads with state and national 
aid will undoubtedly soon improve the main roads so that 
one of the hardest problems of country life will be solved. 

Financing the Farms. — It takes a large amount of money 
to buy a farm, purchase equipment, and supply stock. Few 
people who want to be farmers have enough to make the 
start. It costs a good deal to plant crops and cultivate 
them. The farmer must wait for the harvest and the sale of 
his products before receiving any money. It is the business 
of the banks to supply money for such purposes, but the 
rural banks do not have enough money on hand to supply 
the need. 

The government has provided for financial aid by estab- 
lishing Farm Loan banks which make a business of loaning 
money to farmers to purchase or improve farms. The 
states are also providing for what is called rural credit by 
which more money will be made available for borrowing 
in the rural sections to help finance production of farm 
crops. 

Marketing Farm Products. — The products of the farm 
generally pass through the hands of several dealers before 
they reach the consumer. Each dealer takes a profit so 
that the cost to the consumer is often twice or three times 
as much as the farmer received. The real problem of 
marketing is to make the sale as direct as possible from 
producer to consumer. The farmers are engaging more 
and more in cooperative arrangements by which they work 



I50 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

together to sell their products. The consumers are also 
combining in cooperative societies to buy what they need. 
These cooperative organizations tend to bring producer 
and consumer closer together. 

Questions for Review 

What is the rural problem? 
Why is agriculture the basic industry? 

Why is the trend away from the country an unfavorable symptom? 
What reasons are there for the trend to the city? 
Why should education in the country be improved? 
Why should the Church be extended in the country districts? 
What does the government do for the farmer? 
What are the uses of the Department of Agriculture? 
What is the purpose of the agricultural colleges? 
Explain the uses of an experiment station. 
Why does the government provide for extension work? 
Discuss fully the advantages of good roads to the farmer. 
What is the meaning of the term "rural credit" ? 
Show why it is necessary to improve the system of getting goods 
from producer to consumer. 
What is meant by cooperation? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Find out the measures taken by your state to improve agriculture, 

Where is the agricultural college in your state? 

Where is the experiment station in your state and what does it do? 

Do you have county agents of agriculture? 

Do farmers in your community have banking facilities to help 
purchase farms or to produce crops? 

Do you have any cooperative societies? If so, find out their plan 
of operation. 



CHAPTER XXII 
CITY PROBLEMS 

More than half of the people of the United States live 
in cities and the number is rapidly increasing. Problems 
of city life are, therefore, important because they are con- 
nected with the welfare of the majority of people. 

Cities are the centers of manufacture and trade. The 
raw materials from the farm, forest, and mine are brought 
into the city and are there manufactured into articles 
which are in turn shipped to all parts of the world. The 
country depends upon the city for manufactured articles, 
including a large part of foodstuffs, and all of the clothing 
and machinery. The city depends upon the country for 
the raw materials out of which goods are manufactured; 
also, for the food and fuel necessary to sustain and protect 
the lives of its people. The dependence of the city upon 
the country and of the country upon the city is plain to 
every one. The country as well as the city is concerned 
with everything which relates to the system of transporta- 
tion, and to the facihties for unloading, distribution, and 
storage of goods in the city. 

City Needs. — Because of the fact that people live closer 
together in cities there are more needs in common than 
there are in the country. In the country there is no great 
danger of the spread of fires and fire departments are not 
necessary. In the city, if it were not for fire departments, 
every fire would become a conflagration. The rural roads 
do not need much poHcing, but the city streets, if left with- 
out police, would be the scenes of constant collisions, serious 

151 



152 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



accidents, and deaths. The country people are not in 
danger from garbage and sewage, but the city must pro- 




Courtesy of Packard Motor Co. 

A Large Manufacturing Plant 

Modern industries are housed in fine, well-built, and well- 
ventilated buildings. 

vide means to dispose of waste, or else it would become a 
menace to the health of the people. The country does not 
need such strict provision to suppress disease, because the 



CITY PROBLEMS 153 

people live far apart and do not mingle a great deal in 
crowds. The city must provide strict rules to prevent the 
spread of disease. The country has no need of parks and 
playgrounds for the health of the people. The cities must 
have parks and playgrounds to provide healthful recreation 
for their people. These examples show how much greater 
is the necessity for people in the city to act together for the 
common welfare. 

Transportation. — The transportation problem of the 
city consists of three parts — the streets and sidewalks upon 
which people travel and upon which goods are hauled and 
delivered; the street railways which take the people back 
and forth to their homes and to their work; and the rail- 
roads and terminals which provide for the transportation 
of people and goods in and out of the city. 

Streets. — The problems of the streets are many. Firsts 
a city must plan proper arrangement of streets so that 
people may get in and out of the center of the city readily; 
the correct width of streets must be considered so as to 
prevent congestion; serviceable paving must be provided 
so as to withstand the trafhc; rules and regulations for the 
protection of the people in the use of the streets must be 
enforced; traffic policemen are needed to insure safe 
transportation on the streets. 

Street Railways. — The problems of the street railways 
lie in the provision of such transportation as will enable 
people to travel at small expense to and from their homes. 
Provisions should be made for rapid transit so that people 
may, without great inconvenience, live in good surround- 
ings, away from the industrial sections. Transportation is 
provided in all cities by electric surface cars and motor 
busses. Elevated railways and subways also are built in 
the larger cities. The arrangements of all of these facilities 



154 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



for travel in progressive cities are made so as to prevent as 
far as possible the congestion of people at any point. Efforts 
are made to prevent the overcrowding of cars or busses, and 
to promote the safe transportation of passengers. 




Wharves in New York Harbor 
Transatlantic ships are seen moored beside the enormous wharves 
provided along the water front. Here the products of our land are 
shipped out and goods from other lands received. 



■Railroads and Terminals. — The problem of getting 
people and goods in and out of the city with the greatest 
efficiency and the least delay is the burden of the railroads 
and terminals. When railroads and terminals are badly 
arranged every one loses time and every car of goods is 
delayed. Such losses and delays are expensive and add to 
the cost of goods. Union passenger stations save the time 
of travelers. Belt lines of railways in the city deliver freight 



CITY PROBLEMS 



155 



cars to and from the factories quickly. Adequate terminal 
facilities and warehouses permit the switching and unload- 
ing of cars without delay. These are important for the 
people of the city. The people of the country are affected 
by the kind of transportation system, as well as the system 
of storage. 




A Transcontinental Express 

Fast trains now cross the continent in five days. This shows one 
of the famous trains crossing Great Salt Lake. 



Private and Public Ownership. — The community pro- 
vides for the building and the care of its streets, but 
otherwise the provisions for transportation are largely 
in the hands of private owners. The street railways are 
usually conducted by private companies which obtain 
from the city the right to use the streets. Railroads and 
terminals are likewise managed by private owners. The 
people of the city must see that the private owners of 
these facilities carry on their business for the common 



156 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



good, and that they do not charge excessive rates for the 
service given. The service is a pubHc one which the 
people permit private owners to furnish, instead of doing 
it themselves by government ownership. If the private 
owners fail to give service the city must provide the service 
by government ownership. 




Ewing Galloway 



Model Housing 

This is a row of model homes in Kansas City for families of moderate 
incomes. Extensive playground facilities add to the attractiveness of 
these fine dwellings. 

Housing. — The housing of people is an important prob- 
lem in the city. The crowding of people in small quarters 
results in bad living conditions and in the danger of disease. 
People sometimes attempt to live near their work in order 
to avoid the expense and the delays of travel. They depend 
upon private owners for housing, and if the private owners 
increase rents excessively the people of small incomes are 
compelled to crowd into closer quarters. The development 
of quick and cheap transportation enables people to live 
farther away from their work, and to find surroundings 



CITY PROBLEMS i57 

which are happier and more healthful. The building of 
homes in outlying sections where fresh air, open space and 
Hght, and gardens are available tends to relieve the con- 
gestion in the crowded sections. The encouragement of 
home ownership takes people away from the bad conditions 
of crowded tenements. The larger the city, the more 
serious becomes the congestion in certain sections. Many 
people live in the crowded sections of New York and other 
large cities in narrow spaces where fresh air and Hght are 
scarce. A score of people sometimes live in a space scarcely 
large enough for a small family. The individual, and 
especially the children, do not have fair play under such 
conditions. 

Protective Measures.— The people of the city need more 
pohce protection than the country because of the greater 
dangers of accidents, and because criminals flock to the 
hiding places in the city. Fire protection is necessary to 
prevent disaster. Health protection is especially important 
if the individual is to be protected from those who never 
think of the rights and safety of others. The food supply 
of the city must be watched carefully to prevent the sale 
of impure articles and the risks to health which come from 
adulterated or decayed food. The water supply cannot be 
obtained from wells as in the country because of the danger 
of disease. It must usually be brought in from some dis- 
tance and filtered and must be carefully examined con- 
stantly to prevent the spread of disease germs. Sewage dis- 
posal becomes so important in every large city as to make 
necessary the development of sewage systems and sewage 
disposal plants. Garbage becomes a nuisance even in the 
large villages and garbage removal and reduction plants are 
necessary. Such plants are conducted by some cities at a 
profit by saving the fats and oils and other substances m 



158 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



the process of the reduction of garbage. The city is com- 
pelled to pay attention to the cleaning of streets, not only 
for the sake of appearance, but for the prevention of 
disease. It also makes provision for the prevention of 

smoke which be- 
comes a menace to 
the comfort and 
health of the city 
people. 

The City Beauti- 
ful. — The cities of 
the United States 
have been built up 
without much idea 
of beauty. Indus- 
trial plants have 
been erected next to 
the residential sec- 
tions. Ugly-look- 
ing buildings have 
been constructed, 
hideous billboard 
signs have been 
allowed to line 
the streets, and 
railroad entrances along tumble-down alleys offer the visitor 
an unpleasant view of the city. Those who love beauty 
have tried for many years to awaken the people to the need 
of more artistic surroundings. They revolt at the idea of 
dirty streets, hideous structures, unsightly alleys, and ugly 
billboards; and they are seeking to build up the city beauti- 
ful, where buildings, streets, parks, playgrounds, pubhc 
structures, monuments, and other works of art are all built 




© Ewtng Galloway 

A Crowded City Street 

The congestion in city streets is un- 
sightly and is often the cause of serious 
accidents to children. 



CITY PROBLEMS 159 

harmoniously. They would protect the residence sections 
from the intrusion of the factory, the coal yard, or the 
garage; they would hmit the heights of buildings to insure 
artistic lines; they would have monuments and billboards 
only when approved from an artistic point of view as to 
appearance and location, and they promote clean-up and 
paint-up campaigns to beautify the city. In all this they 
beheve that the city beautiful pays, not only in the sense 
of pride of its citizens, but in the improvement of all con- 
ditions which make for the success of the city and its 
citizens. 

Questions for Review 

Why are city problems important? 

What percentage of the people of the United States live in cities? 

Show how the city depends upon the country. 

Show how the country depends upon the city. 

Give five examples of special needs of the city. 

What does the problem of transportation consist of in cities? 

What do we mean by the term "rapid transit"? 

Why is a union station economical for the people? 

Who owns the street railways of your city? the warehouses? the 
grain elevators? 

Why do the people control the rates and service of street 
railways? 

What is the problem of housing? 

Show the relation between transportation and housing in cities. 

Name six protective measures necessary in cities. 

What is the meaning of the term "the city beautiful"? 

What things can be done to make a city more beautiful? 

Show the advantages of a "clean-up and paint-up" campaign. 

Questions for Community Studies 

Show how your own city is dependent on the country. 
Give a list of necessary products which come into your city from the 
farm. 



i6o THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Study the problem of railroads, terminals, and storage facilities in 
your city by inquiry among business men to see if they are sufficient. 
Do you have any crowded sections in your city? 
What is done to give play places for children? 
Find out the source of supply of water for the city. 
How are garbage and sewage disposed of? 
What is being done by your city to make it beautiful? 



CHAPTER XXIII 
TRANSPORTATION 

Every one depends on the transportation system. Only 
a part of the products of the country are consumed at the 
place of production. The rest is transported from the 
producer to the consumer over highways, railroads, canals, 
or oceans. The system of transportation increases in im- 
portance for the individual and the community as men 
specialize their labor more and more. The importance of 
good transportation increases as we are compelled to reach 
out farther for supplies and for markets. When each 
community suppHed most of its own needs, transportation 
was not a very important matter. To-day, however, we 
get most of the things we use from distant places where 
they are made and we in turn supply other places with 
what we produce. Transportation has, therefore, become 
of vital importance. 

Highways.^ — The highway and street are among the first 
needs of a modern community. With these facilities people 
may exchange products in the community, transport their 
surplus to market, and bring back the things which they 
need but do not produce. There are about 2,200,000 miles 
of highways in the United States connecting all sections. 
A large part of these roads are dirt roads and some are 
mere trails over which travel is difficult. About ten per 
cent are improved roads, includuig those of brick, concrete, 
macadam, rock, or sand clay. 

The improved roads form a system connecting many of 
the larger places and the aim is to extend good roads to 

161 



l62 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



every market center. When that time comes we shall have 
the dirt roads connecting each farmhouse with market 
centers, and the market centers connected with other 
centers by means of improved roads. Between the larger 




Courtesy of Chamber of Commerce, Portland, Ore. 

A Beautiful Highway 

The government has provided fine highways connecting communities 
throughout the country. This is a view of the Columbia River High- 
way, Oregon. 

centers where heav>' traffic passes, permanent roads ca- 
pable of withstanding the traffic are already being con- 
structed. City streets which must stand a heavy strain 
are, as a matter of economy, made very substantial. 

Railroad Transportation. — The railroad is the chief means 
of transportation for goods and people for long distances. 
There are about 275,000 miles of railroads in the United 



TRANSPORTATION 



163 



States and most of the country is brought within reach of 
a railroad station or shipping point. The raihoads reach 
the great centers of products— farms, mines, and forests; 
they connect with the centers of manufacture and with the 




© Eivmg Galloway 



A Lake Port 
This view of the harbor at Buffalo, N. Y., shows the facilities for the 
care and handling of the immense amount of freight shipped by way 
of the Great Lakes. 

water ports. The bulk of the railroads are steam roads, 
but electric railways have been extensively built in recent 
years, and have brought the network of railroads closer 
to the homes of people and to the sources of the supply of 
products. 

Waterways.— The waterway was the earhest means of 
transportation. The people of ancient days lived along 



1 64 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

the watercourses. The principal centers were seaports 
and the bulk of the people of the world lived within reach 
of water transportation. As people moved into the interior, 
efforts were made to extend water transportation by means 
of canals. We had at one time in this country a con- 
siderable system of canals. Some very important links 
in our transportation system are now supplied by such 
waterways as the Erie Canal, Welland Canal, and Cape 
Cod Canal. 

The growth of world commerce has advanced the im- 
portance of water transportation. We send and receive 
vast supplies across the seas. The merchant ships of to-day 
are of great importance and we are likely to be more and 
more dependent upon them. If ocean transportation were 
to be cut off, all the countries in the world would be in dire 
distress. England's cotton mills would stop for the lack of 
raw cotton; France would produce silk without a market; 
American tire plants, and therefore automobile plants, 
would practically stop. These are only a few examples of 
hundreds that might be mentioned of world dependence on 
transportation. 

Air Transportation.-^The uses of the airplane in the 
war caused its improvement as a means of transportation, 
and air service is now an accomplished fact in several parts 
of the world. The use of the airplane is likely to increase 
in the delivery of mails, products of small bulk, and passen- 
gers. The great speed possible enables delivery in an in- 
credibly short time. Mail has already been delivered from 
San Francisco to New York in less than three days. 

The Postal Service. — The delivery of written messages 
and printed matter has been a function of the government 
ever since the early colonial days. Benjamin Franklin was 
one of the first Postmaster-Generals. The post-office system 



TRANSPORTATION 



165 



now consists of a post office in every city, town, and village, 
railroad postal service, city mail delivery, and rural delivery. 
Transportation for mails is provided by railroads, water- 
ways, stagecoach, and airplanes; and every corner of the 




© Ewing Galloway 



In a Railway Mail Car 



Mail is assorted and distributed on trains by railway mail clerks, 
thereby saving considerable time in the delivery of letters and other 
mail matter. 

country is reached. The system is not run for profit, but as 
a service for the common benefit of all the people of the 
country. Rates are fixed not to make a profit, but to 
stimulate the use of the mails. Letters are delivered for 
two cents from one end of the country to the other, even 
into the most remote regions. 

Since 191 2 the post office has undertaken to deliver par- 
cels under the parcel-post system, making a charge accord- 
ing to the weight and to the distance. 



1 66 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Telegraph and Telephone. — The transmission of intelli- 
gence by the telegraph and telephone is a business of vital 
consequence to the people. We have come to rely increas- 
ingly upon the telegraph and telephone to transact busi- 
ness. Millions of messages are transmitted annually, and 
the system now rivals the postal system as a means of 
communicating intelligence and of carrying on business. 
The wireless telegraph and telephone are being rapidly 
perfected for general use and will play a large part in 
the future for transmitting messages. 

Public Management and Control. — The highways of this 
country are public highways maintained at public expense 
and free to all. Private parties built roads and tried un- 
successfully to maintain them by charging toll. Toll 
roads were constructed in many parts of the country, but 
they could not be made to pay a profit to the private owners 
and were taken over by the public. Bridges were also built 
in many places by private parties and toll was charged 
for use. These private toll bridges have also about gone 
out of use as private enterprises. The public as a rule 
maintains the bridges as a part of the roads. The govern- 
ment conducts the postal system and contracts with the 
railroads and stage drivers to transport the mails. It owns 
or leases the post-office buildings from which the mail is 
distributed in every city, town, and village. The air mail 
service is owned and conducted by the government. 

The railroads, telegraph, and telephones are privately 
owned and managed, although during the war they were 
taken over and conducted by the government. While the 
government does not own and manage the companies, 
it does regulate and control them. Rates and service are 
subject to control by the government, and they are closely 
regulated by the states and the nation, in order to serve at 



TRANSPORTATION 167 

a fair rate and without discrimination all the people of the 
country. Street railways are also owned by private owners, 
but are subject to the strict control of the city and state. 
Their rates and service are regulated and closely supervised 
so that all are treated alike. 

The highways are built and managed by the townships 
and counties, with the aid and supervision of the state. 
Usually the dirt roads are left entirely to the management 
of the township; the more important local roads are some- 
times constructed by the township and county in part- 
nership; and the most important roads are generally 
constructed by the counties with state aid, or by the state 
alone and are subject to the supervision of the state. 

Since 191 6 the federal government has given aid to the 
states in building main highways constituting a national 
system. The states must contribute an amount equal to 
that of the national government and the roads must be 
■built according to the plans and specifications of the Fed- 
eral Good Roads Bureau. 

Questions toe Review 

Why is transportation important to all of us? 

What means of transportation are used to supply your community? 

What means of transportation are used to carry goods to market 
from your community? 

Describe the roads of your community. 

What kind of streets are built in your city? 

Why should streets and roads be built of the most durable materials? 

Are railroad facilities available for all the needs of your city or 
community? 

Are street railway facilities adequate in your city? 

What waterways are used to help supply the needs of your com- 
munity? 



Why are we dependent upon ocean transportation? 
Why is air transportation likely to increase in importance 



i68 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Describe the service of the post office in your community. 

Why is it a good policy to make the rates of postage low? 

Should the postage rate be fixed according to distance or be uniform 
for any distance? 

Describe the uses of the telegraph and telephone as aids to business. 

What parts of the transportation system are owned and run by the 
people? 

Why is it best to have roads and bridges owned by the people and 
free to all? 

Why should the rates of fare on railroads and street railways be 
regulated by the people? 

What local officers look after the roads in your community? 

What city officers look after the building and care of streets in 
your city? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Make a list of twenty-five necessities of life and show in each case 
how we depend upon transportation to get them. 

Study the methods of construction of each of the several kinds of 
roads or streets in your community. 

Make a study of the condition of roads and streets in the com- 
munity. 

Find the exact way in which railroads and street railways are 
regulated by the government. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
CAPITAL AND LABOR 

When we discuss the problems of capital and labor, we 
discuss the conditions under which employees work for 
employers. The problems cover wages, hours of labor, and 
conditions under which employees work. These problems 
are important, for they concern the livelihood of the 
workers, the management of business, and the welfare of 
the whole people. No question of our time is so vital to 
the common welfare as the question of capital and labor. 

All men who are engaged in work are either employers 
or employees, except those who work for themselves. The 
employer organizes the business and employs managers and 
workmen. The employee sells his labor to the employer 
for a certain length of time at a given rate of pay, or for a 
given piece of work at a certain rate. The employer seeking 
workers agrees to employ men at certain rates of pay. The 
employee seeking work sells his labor to an employer. A 
man who is dissatisfied may refuse to work and a man whom 
the employer does not want may not be hired or may be 
discharged. 

When employers and employees come to decide upon the 
amount of wages, the number of hours of labor, and the 
conditions of work, the employee has little power in com- 
parison with the employer, because he must have work in 
order to live and cannot spend much time in seeking it. 
The employer on the other hand is not forced to employ 
any particular man and he can generally force a worker ta 
come to his terms. 

169 



I70 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Trade Unions. — The weakness of the individual employee 
in bargaining with an employer has caused the workers to 
combine in trade unions and to bargain with the employer 
as a whole group. Instead of a hundred men going singly 
to the employer, representatives of the hundred men bar- 
gain with the employer for the whole group. This is called 
collective bargaining. By means of collective bargaining 
the employees are put more nearly on an equal footing with 
employers in bargaining power. Collective bargaining 
extends sometimes to all of the men in a trade all over the 
country. Soft-coal miners and railroad men in this 
country have bargained through their own committees 
with committees representing their employers throughout 
the entire country or throughout certain regions. 

Trade unions have long been considered necessary for the 
welfare of the workers. In 1891, Pope Leo explained the 
great good that comes to the workers by such associations. 
The Pastoral Letter of the American Hierarchy in 191 9 
called attention to ''the right of the workers to form and 
maintain the kind of organization that is necessary and 
will be most effectual in securing their welfare." The 
Letter declared also for ''the right of employers to the 
faithful observance by the labor unions of all contracts 
and agreements." 

Wages. — The chief cause of dispute between employers 
and employees is the subject of wages. The men naturally 
contend for more wages and the employers try to prevent 
increased cost. It is difficult in such circumstances to agree 
upon a standard which is just and acceptable to both sides. 
The men contend for at least a living wage to enable them 
to support themselves and their dependents according to 
the dignity of human beings. Right-minded employers 
accept the standard of the living wage, but there are many 



CAPITAL AND LABOR 171 

disputes as to what constitutes a living wage, and whether 
the industry can stand the wage demanded. 

Hours of Labor. — ^Another question which causes dis- 
putes between employers and employees is the number of 
hours in the day's work. At one time twelve and even 
fourteen hours was the standard day's work. It was grad- 
ually reduced to ten and finally, in most employments, to 
eight. Some employments still continue the ten-hour day 
and in a very few industries even a twelve-hour day 
prevails. The men contend generally that in many employ- 
ments an eight-hour day is as much as a man should be 
required to work, and that time should be given for recrea- 
tion. Many employers and employees have come to believe 
that the eight-hour day is better than the ten-hour day, 
because men are able to work more effectively for the 
shorter number of hours. Every one agrees that a day of 
more than ten hours is wrong. Laws have been enacted 
fixing eight hours as the length of the day in all public 
works, and in some states, laws have been enacted to prevent 
women from being employed more than eight hours. It is 
recognized that in monotonous and unhealthy employments, 
and those in which the workers are under a nervous strain, 
a shorter day is necessary to preserve the health of the 
workers. 

Health and Safety. — The conditions under which men 
work are also a matter of concern to the employees. The 
loss of health is a serious thing to a worker, for he is thereby 
prevented from earning a living. The loss of working power 
through an accident is a disastrous thing for the same 
reason. Men have begun to see that they cannot protect 
themselves from accident and disease by their own efforts. 
It is necessary to require safety devices and healthful condi- 
tions by law in order to protect the health of all the workers. 



172 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



Nearly every state has made some provision for the 
inspection of factories in order to prevent accidents and 
disease. The ''safety first" movement for the prevention 
of accidents in industry has made rapid progress. We see 
already the beginnings of a Hke movement for the preven- 
tion of disease. 



m 




Courtesy of B. Altman Co., New York 

For Employees' Welfare 

Large stores and industries are providing places for rest and recrea- 
tion which are available to workers when not on duty. 

Open and Closed Shop. — The open shop is one in which 
men who do not belong to a trade union work with the men 
who do belong to a trade union. A closed shop is one in 
which only members of trade unions are employed. Another 
form of closed shop is one in which the employers hire none 
but non-union men, the shop being closed to union men. 



CAPITAL AND LABOR 173 

Many disputes between employers and employees are 
due to the contest over the open and closed shop. The 
tendency of trade unions is toward the closed shop, or shop 
closed to non-union men. Many employers favor the shop 
closed to union men. The two kinds of closed shops as 
well as the open shop are found in different industries. 

Arbitration. — When employers and employees cannot 
agree upon wages, hours of work, or other conditions, they 
sometimes submit their differences to arbitration. Each 
side chooses representatives, who in turn choose other 
representatives, and the board thus created acts as a jury 
to bring about a fair settlement. This is the best way to 
settle differences. 

The Pastoral Letter of the American Hierarchy says: 

Neither employer nor employee may reasonably reject this 
method on the ground that it does not bring about perfect 
justice; no human institution is perfect or infallible. Even 
courts of law are sometimes in error. Like the law courts, 
the tribunal of industrial arbitration provides the nearest 
approach to justice that is practically attainable. 

Strikes and Lockouts. — Instead of settling differences or 
submitting disputes to arbitration the employees some- 
times resort to the strike and the employers, to the lockout. 
The strike means that men quit work in a body and re- 
fuse to work under existing conditions. The lockout 
means that the employer closes his plant to his employees. 
When a strike or lockout occurs the employees strive to 
persuade others from taking their places. Employers often 
bring in new workers, called strike breakers. The conflict 
sometimes grows bitter and violence occurs. As a rule, the 
strike or lockout does not determine which side is right, but 
rather which side is stronger. After severe losses to both 
sides some agreement must finally be reached. 



174 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Mediation and Conciliation. — When a strike has been 
begun it ends either in the defeat of one or other of the 
parties to the strike, or by the mediation of outside parties. 
The states have nearly all provided some public agency to 
investigate the cause of strikes, and to attempt to mediate 
or to conciliate the strikers and employers. The United 
States Government has a department whose function is to 
investigate and settle disputes in railroad work. During 
the war the War Labor Board was created to settle all kinds 
of disputes between employers and employees and it had 
good success. It frequently happens that an impartial 
agency investigating the causes of a strike influences the 
parties to a peaceful and just settlement of their differences. 

Unemployment. — One of the most serious problems for 
the employee is the uncertainty of employment. Many 
causes operate to prevent steady employment. Weather 
conditions affect some occupations. Sickness and accident 
cause a large loss to many men. The breakdown of ma- 
chinery or equipment keeps plants closed for days, or 
perhaps weeks. Business depression causes the labor forces 
to be cut down. Many occupations can be carried on only 
in certain seasons, and the workers in these occupations 
must find other employment for a part of the year. 

All of these causes result disastrously for workers who 
depend for their living upon their daily wage. The results 
have given rise to discussions as to means of providing 
steady employment so as to prevent the hardships which 
fall upon those who are compelled to be out of work. 
Employment bureaus or exchanges are provided for better 
distribution of labor. Public works are planned to take up 
the slack in dull times. Business is distributing its opera- 
tions more and more throughout the year. Insurance plans 
are meeting some of the difficulties. The problem is one 



CAPITAL AND LABOR 



175 



of the most serious which confront the people of this 
country. 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 



An Employees' Meeting 

In some large industrial plants the employees take an active part 
in the management of the business. Representatives of the men meet 
in session to discuss the affairs of interest to the workers. 



Profit Sharing.— There have been many suggestions for 
the uniting of employers and employees by means of profit 
sharing. Many concerns have put such schemes in opera- 
tion. The plan provides that, on some agreed basis, the 
men shall receive in addition to their wages a part of the 
profits of the business. Under this plan the men are given 



176 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

a direct interest in the promotion of the business and its 
efficiency. Its chief advantage Hes, however, in the better 
understanding that exists between employers and employees 
when all of the facts regarding profits are made known. 
When profits are shared, they must necessarily be divided 
on a fair basis or the cause of discontent will remain. 

Labor Participation in Management. — The next step 
which has been taken by many business and industrial 
concerns in this country is the union of employers and 
employees through joint management. In a number of 
concerns the men have been invited to select from their 
ranks members of the board of directors. Others have 
provided for advisory committees, while in some instances 
employers have invited employees into the management 
on equal terms. The chief advantage claimed for labor's 
participation in management is that employers and em- 
ployees are brought together in closer unity. Each comes to 
understand the problems of the other better when they sit 
down together to determine the policies of the . industry . 
The experiments now being tried in some of the largest 
industries of the country are being watched with great 
interest. 

On this subject the Pastoral Letter said : 

In his pronouncement on labor, Pope Leo XIII describes the 
advantages to be derived by both employer and employee 
from "associations and organizations which draw the two 
classes more closely together." Such associations are especially 
needed at the present time. While the labor union or trade 
union has been, and still is, necessary in the struggle of the 
workers for fair wages and fair conditions of employment, we 
have to recognize that its history, methods, and objects have 
made it essentially a militant organization. The time seems 
now to have arrived when it should be, not supplanted, but 
supplemented by associations or conferences, composed jointly 
of employers and employees, which will place emphasis upon the 



CAPITAL AND LABOR 177 

common interests rather than the divergent aims of the two 
parties, upon cooperation rather than conflict. Through such 
arrangements, all classes would be greatly benefited. The 
worker would participate in those matters of industrial manage- 
ment which directly concern him and about which he possesses 
helpful knowledge; he would acquire an increased sense of 
personal dignity and personal responsibility, take greater interest 
and pride in his work, and become more efficient and more 
contented. The employer would have the benefit of willing 
cooperation from, and harmonious relations with, his employees. 
The consumer, in common with employer and employee, would 
share in the advantages of larger and steadier production. In 
a word, industry would be carried on as a cooperative enterprise 
for the common good, and not as a contest between two parties 
for a restricted product. 

Questions for Review 

What subjects are discussed under the terms "capital and labor"? 

Explain the term "wages." How are wages fixed? 

What is a trade union? 

How does the trade union serve the workers? 

What is collective bargaining? 

What should be the basis for fixing wages? 

What is a living wage? 

Why is the length of the working day a matter of dispute? 

How many hours should be a day's work? 

Why are accidents and sickness serious risks to workers? 

How do the people try to prevent accidents and sickness among 
workers? 

What is the closed shop? The open shop? 

Define arbitration. Why is it the better plan in settling disputes? 

What is a strike? A lockout? 

What are the results of strikes? 

Define the terms "mediation" and "conciliation." 

Why and how does the government provide for mediation and 
conciliation? 

Give the causes of unemployment and show why it is so important 
to the workers. 

What is profit sharing? 



178 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Why should labor have some voice in management? 

What is the attitude of the Church toward capital and labor? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Find out the names of all the labor unions in your city. 

Do they all have collective bargaining with their employers? 

Have there been any recent strikes or lockouts in your city? 

What were the causes and results? 

Find out the wages paid, the hours of labor per day and per week in 
selected employments in your city. 

Can you find any examples of profit sharing or of labor helping to 
manage industries in your city? 



CHAPTER XXV 
MONEY 

In the early days of this country people bought and sold 
goods by the method of barter. The meaning of the term 
''barter" is merely the exchange of goods without the use 
of money. Even to-day in some remote sections people 
carry on most of their business by barter. In all sections 
there is some exchange of goods by barter. The examples 
of barter which we see to-day include the exchange of eggs 
at the grocery store for groceries, and the trading of horses, 
and automobiles. 

Difficulties of Barter. — When people exchange goods by 
barter only, there are many difficulties. The man who h*as 
something to exchange and who wants something else 
must find the person who has what he wants and who at the 
same time desires the things which he has to exchange. If 
a man had ten bushels of wheat and wanted a sheep, he 
would have to search for a man who had a sheep for sale 
and who at the same time would be willing to take wheat 
in exchange for it. 

The difficulty of barter is even greater when one tries to 
exchange things which cannot be divided. If a man had a 
horse and desired to exchange it for an automobile, he 
would have to find a man who had an automobile of about 
equal value. Difficulties of barter were so great in primi- 
tive times that fairs were held where people came with 
things they had for sale and could find things they wanted. 
Barter would be impossible now because of the wide 
variety of things which people use in their daily lives. 

179 



i8o THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The outgrowth of the barter system was the use of a 
medium of exchange, which was some substance for which 
an article could be bought or sold. Several kinds of me- 
diums have been used in different countries. In our own 
country wampum and furs were mediums of exchange with 
the Indians. Tobacco, grain, and various minerals have 
been used at different times. In other countries iron, 
copper, tin, grain, and even live stock have been used as 
mediums of exchange. In this country to-day we have 
gold, silver, nickel, copper, and paper money. 

What Makes a Good Medium of Exchange. — First, it 
must have real value or be backed by real value, so that 
people will take it without question, knowing that it is of 
a certain value. Second, it must be easily divided so as to 
provide for large and small exchanges. If we had no 
medium of less than one hundred dollars of value none 
of the smaller exchanges could be made. Third, it must 
be easily carried, or else it would lose one of its 
prime purposes as money. Fourth, it must be practically 
indestructible by wear, otherwise its value would be 
lessened by use. Fifth, it must be stable in value; it 
must not fluctuate widely from day to day or from year 
to year. 

According to these standards it is plain that few articles 
possess all the qualities necessary to make a good medium 
of exchange. Many articles would have some of the 
qualities to a high degree but would lack other qualities. 
Diamonds have real value and they are easily carried, but 
they cannot be divided and are easily lost or destroyed. 
Aluminum would have many of the necessary qualities, 
but it would lack value, so also would iron and tin. One 
would have to carry a great bulk of such materials to make 
exchanges. 



MONEY 



i5i 



Gold and Silver.— Experience has proven that gold is 
the best medium of exchange, because it comes nearer to 
meeting all of the requirements than any other substance. 
Nearly every country has adopted gold as the standard 
medium of ex- 
change. Gold lacks, 
however, certain 
qualities. It is 
not easily divisible. 
A dollar in gold 
would be a very 
small coin and a 
dime in gold would 
be too small for any 
practical use. Gold 
in large quantities 
is not easily porta- 
ble, hence we need 
substitutes for gold. 
This is accomplish- 
ed by making coins 
which are backed 
by gold. Such coins 
are silver, nickel, 
and copper. Port- 
abihty is accomplished by making paper money, which 
depends upon gold for its real value. 

Silver has been used widely as a coin in this country and 
at one time it was the standard medium of exchange. Then 
its value dropped because of large production and it lost 
its position to gold, which then became the standard 
medium of exchange. We have created a vast amount 
of silver money, and also of paper money and coins of 




© Keystone View Co., Inc. 

A Government Mint 

This view of the mint at Philadelphia 
shows inspectors at work examining coins. 



1 82 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

copper and nickel. This money, however, depends upon 
gold for its value. The government will readily exchange 
gold for any of the kinds of money in use. In this manner 
their value is kept up. 

The Money of the United States. — The money of the 
United States at present consists of gold, silver, nickel, and 
copper coins, and paper money of various kinds. The 
paper money in use consists of gold certificates which 
represent gold deposited in the Treasury as security. These 
certificates declare that an equal amount of gold has been 
deposited to cover its value. Silver certificates represent 
silver deposited in the Treasury. The silver in turn is 
backed by the fact that it is exchangeable for gold. United 
States notes, or greenbacks, as they are called, were issued 
at the time of the Civil War to pay the current bills. They 
are merely promises to pay on the part of the government. 
The people trust the government and therefore they take 
the money readily. National bank notes are forms of 
money issued by the national banks on the security of 
United States bonds owned by the banks and deposited in 
the United States Treasury. Since the passage of the 
Federal Reserve Act in 19 13 the principal kinds of paper 
money issued have been Federal Reserve Bank notes. 
These notes also are secured by bonds and notes held by 
the bank. The Federal Reserve Bank notes which are 
issued by the Federal Reserve Banks are another form of 
money now in use. There are also in circulation treasury 
notes which were issued in 1890. The treasury notes have 
been retired from circulation. However, many of these 
notes are still in the hands of people who have not yet 
turned them in to the Treasury to be redeemed. 

Sound Money. — We have already seen that one of the 
essentials of good money is that it shall have value and 



MONEY 183 

shall not change in value from day to day. In other words, 
it should be sound money. If money changed in value 
frequently a man might be compelled to pay a debt in 
money which was more valuable than that which he bor- 
rowed. The reverse might also be true. 

Suppose the standard of value were a bushel of potatoes. 
At one time the value of a bushel of potatoes might be as 
much as five times its value at another time. The man 
who borrowed a bushel of potatoes at one dollar and was 
compelled to pay it back in potatoes worth four dollars a 
bushel would be put to a disadvantage. The opposite 
would likewise cause injustice. There have been many 
proposals for paper money, as though the government 
could create any amount of good money by placing a 
stamp upon it. The government can issue a small 
amount and keep up its value, but when it issues large 
quantities people lose confidence in it and the money is 
cheapened. It is bad policy to issue cheap forms of money 
unless there is real value behind it to keep it from decreas- 
ing in value. 

Money, a National Matter. — The money of the United 
States is provided by the national government and not by 
the states. Congress was given power to coin money and 
regulate its value. The states were prohibited from coining 
money or from making anything but gold or silver coin 
legal tender in payment of debts. The entire money 
system is governed by national laws. 

One can readily see the advantage of this. If each state 
had the right to issue money we might have forty-eight 
different kinds of money and one would have to have a 
guidebook with him at all times in order to know the value 
of each different kind. By having national money only, 
we know the value wherever we receive it, whether in 



1 84 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Maine or in California. Universal value throughout the 
country is a great boon to business men and to others 
who go from state to state, or who do business in several 
states. 

The Making of Money. — The coins of the United States 
are made in the United States Mints. There are five mints 
in the United States located at : 

Carson City, Nev.; New Orleans, La.; Philadelphia, 
Pa.; San Francisco, Cal. ; Denver, Col. 

The government buys the bullion for silver, copper, and 
nickel coins and stamps it. Any one having gold bulhon 
may take it to the mint and have it coined free. The 
government also buys gold and coins it. The paper money 
is prepared at the United States Bureau of Engraving in 
Washington. It is printed on special paper made in a 
government plant. Special efforts are necessary to prevent 
imitation by counterfeiters — both of coins and paper money. 

Questions toe Review 

What is barter? Give examples. 

Why is it difficult to carry on business by barter? 

Why would it be impossible to supply our needs by barter? 

What is the meaning of a medium of exchange? 

What articles have been used as mediums of exchange? 

Give the qualities necessary for a good medium of exchange. 

What is the standard medium of exchange to-day? 

Why is gold a good medium? 

What gives value to paper money? 

What gives value to copper and nickel coins? 

Name all the kinds of money in use in the United States. 

Name all the kinds of paper money. 

Why should we support sound money? 

Why is the making of money a national matter? 

Why not permit money issued by states? 

Why not have money issued by private parties? 

Why does the government exchange gold for paper money? 



MONEY 1 85 

Questions for Community Studies 

Make a list of every case of barter still in use in your locality. 

Make a list of all articles that might be used as mediums of exchange 
and show the advantages and disadvantages of each. 

Observe all the kinds of money in use. Have local bankers explain 
each kind. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
BANKS AND BANKING 

Banks are institutions which receive deposits of money 
and make loans. If there were no banks, people would have 
to keep their money in hiding places with great risk of loss, 
and there would be no way of using the people's money to 
aid in carrying on business. Banks protect the money 
which people deposit with them and loan it to aid in carry- 
ing on the business of the community. Banks send money 
from place to place and make collections in other places 
for their customers. 

Deposits. — The people make deposits in the bank by 
leaving their money and taking from the bank deposit 
slips which serve as receipts. The depositors are entitled 
to draw out the amount of money which they deposit. 
Some deposits are made on condition that they will be 
paid whenever depositors ask for them. These are called 
demand deposits. Some deposits cannot be drawn for a 
certain length of time, or until a certain length of time 
after notice is given to the bank. These are called time 
deposits. The depositor draws his money out of the bank 
by means of a check. 

Check. — A check is a written order by a depositor direct- 
ing the bank to pay a certain sum of money to himself or 
to some one named on the face of the check. When the 
check is presented to the bank it is paid and the amount is 
deducted from the account of the depositor. The holder of a 
check may take it to the bank and have it certified. A 
check is certified when a bank official writes the word 

1 86 



BANKS AND BANKING 



187 



"certified" across the face and signs it. When a check is 
certified the amount is taken from the depositor's account 
and the bank guarantees the payment of the check when 
it is presented. 




© Brown Bros. 



The United States Treasury 

Here the vast business connected with government financial matters 
is carried on. 



Bank Drafts. — When a bank issues its own check pay- 
able from its own funds it is called a bank draft. Banks 
usually have some of their money deposited in banks in 
such large commercial cities as New York and Chicago. 
When a bank draws its check on a bank in New York or in 
Chicago it is called a New York draft or a Chicago draft. 
Such drafts are used when a person desires to make a pay- 
ment in distant places. 



i88 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Transferring Money. — One of the important functions 
of the bank is to send money from place to place and to 
collect money in other places for its customers. Two 
examples follow: a man in New York desires to pay a bill 
in Chicago. He goes to a bank and buys a bank draft. In 
this case he would probably buy a draft on a Chicago bank. 
The draft is merely the check of the New York bank on a 
Chicago bank in which it has funds. The buyer pays the 
amount of the check plus the bank's charges and sends 
the check to the one whom he wishes to pay in Chicago. 
The Chicago man collects the draft on the Chicago bank. 
The New York man might have sent his own check. 
In this case the Chicago man would deposit it in his bank, 
which would then collect the check in New York. 

Banks save a great deal of time and risk for the people in 
collecting checks and drafts on other cities. The money 
need not be sent from city to city. At the end of a day, 
for example, Chicago banks may have $500,000 to collect 
from New York banks, and at the same time New York 
banks may have $505,000 to collect from Chicago banks. 
It is unnecessary for Chicago banks to send $500,000 to 
New York and New York banks to send $505,000 to Chi- 
cago. All of the collections are canceled and only the 
balance, $5,000, is paid. By arrangement among all the 
banks in the country checks and drafts are collected in any 
part of the country, and only the balance between different 
parts of the country is paid. 

Loans and Discounts. — The banks receive deposits in 
order to secure money with which to make loans. When a 
customer borrows money from the bank he gives his note 
or promise to pay in a certain length of time. The bank 
deducts the amount of interest to be charged for the time 
and pays the rest to the borrower. Instead of giving his 



BANKS AND BANKING 189 

own note the borrower may turn over to the bank notes 
given by some other person and payable to him. The bank 
takes such notes, deducts the interest for the time until 
due, and pays the rest to the borrower. This is called dis- 




Courlesy of the National City Bank, N. Y. 

A Large Bank 
New York City is the great banking center of the United States. 
This is a view of the main floor of one of its largest banks. 

counting. In loaning money, banks, of course, must be 
reasonably sure that the notes will be paid. Commercial 
banks loan on notes for short periods, usually thirty, sixty, 
or ninety days. People who wish to borrow money for a 
long period usually must go to a savings bank, trust com- 
pany, or other financial institutions which make a business 
of loaning for long terms. 

Bank Reserves.— A bank cannot loan all the reaay 
money it has because it must keep considerable on hand 



I90 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

to pay the depositors who desire to draw out money. 
Usually as much is deposited each day as drawn out, but 
the bank must be ready to pay should an extra call for 
money be made by depositors. An amount is kept in ready 
cash by the bank to meet any emergency. The cash kept 
for this purpose is called the reserve. It is the reserve 
which makes banks safe against unexpected withdrawals 
by depositors. Without the reserve it might happen that 
more checks would be presented for payment than the bank 
has funds on hand to pay. If that should happen, the credit 
of the bank would be harmed, depositors might become 
alarmed and all try to draw their money out at once, thus 
causing what is called a ^'run" on the bank. 

Kinds of Banks. — ^We have first the national banks, and 
state banks according as they are estabhshed under the 
federal law or the state law. Until 1861, all banks were state 
banks. Since then national banks have been established and 
there is now more money deposited in national than in state 
banks. The largest banks are usually national banks. There 
are also some private banks run by individuals. These are 
neither national nor state banks, but their number and 
importance are decreasing. 

Banks are divided also into commercial banks and non- 
commercial banks. The commercial banks are those 
which make loans and discounts for short terms in order 
to aid in the conduct of business. The noncommercial 
banks are the savings banks and trust companies. These 
banks engage principally in making loans on property in the 
form of mortgages for periods of years. Trust companies 
also engage in the management of estates and of property 
of people who leave it in their care. 

Money for Traveling. — People who travel have difficul- 
ties in keeping ready money on hand. There is great risk 



BANKS AND BANKING 191 

in carrying large amounts of cash, and to meet the need the 
travelers' check has been provided. Any person desiring 
to travel may buy travelers' checks from banks or express 
companies. When he buys these checks the purchaser 
signs his name in the place provided. When he wants to 
cash one of the checks he must sign the check again and 
the two signatures must correspond. The banks and 
companies issuing the checks are so well known that a 
person may carry the checks and get them cashed al- 
most anywhere without being personally known. 

Supervision of Banking. — Banks hold such an important 
place in the life of the community that they are subject to 
the closest supervision. Laws regulate the organization 
and conduct of banks very strictly. Banks are subject to 
inspection constantly by public officials, and reports of 
their condition are required regularly. 

The national banks are under the supervision of the 
Comptroller of the Currency, and in some instances under 
the Federal Reserve Board also. Reports are required at 
least five times a year, and as much oftener as the Comp- 
troller decides. Special reports may be demanded from a 
bank at any time. The Comptroller may inspect the 
accounts of the bank whenever he desires. 

State banks are supervised by a state official, usually 
called bank commissioner, or superintendent of banks. 
This official exercises about the same authority in most of 
the states as the Comptroller of the Currency does over 
national banks. 

Questions tor Review 

What is a bank? 
What is the work of a bank? 
Define the term "deposits." 
What is a check? 



192 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

What is a demand deposit? A time deposit? 
What is a bank draft? 

What do banks do with the money deposited in them? 
What is a bank loan? 

Explain what is meant by discounting a note. 
What is the bank reserve? 

Why is the bank reserve important to the bank? 
What is a "rim on the bank"? 
What is a commercial bank? Trust company? 
Define a state bank. A national bank. 
Explain travelers' checks and show how they are useful. 
Why is it important for the government to supervise the banking 
business? 

What official inspects and supervises national banks? State banks? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Secure information concerning the banks of your city or community. 

Classify them as to types. 

Make inquiries of the bank officials about the work of each. 

Secure samples of checks, drafts, deposit slips, notes, and other 
bank forms. 

Secure and study the statements of the banks published from time 
to time and have the details explained by bankers. 

Find out how money is sent to other cities and to other countries. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
INSURANCE 

By means of insurance people bear each others' burdens 
through sharing the losses of common risks. Any one of a 
hundred home owners may lose his home by fire. No one 
knows who is to suffer the calamity. The owners insure 
themselves and share the loss with the one who may happen 
to be the victim. Men are liable to accidents so they in- 
sure themselves along with others and all share the loss with 
the one who is injured. Insurance is applied to many 
kinds of losses. We insure against death, disease, accidents, 
burglary, tornadoes, hail, fire, and many other calamities. 

How Insurance Began. — Insurance began several centu- 
ries ago in the form of protection against losses at sea. 
Shipowners and merchants often had everything which they 
possessed risked on a single voyage. It was a gamble on 
their part whether their ship or cargo would reach port, 
and make large profits, or go down in the ocean and leave 
them bankrupt. 

Gradually the business of insurance arose by which the 
risk was divided with other shipowners and merchants. 
The owners paid to the insurance brokers a certain sum and 
they assumed the risk. The insurance brokers soon learned 
how many sea disasters were likely to take place and could 
fix the rates so as to pay the losses and leave them a profit. 
The risks of each owner are thus borne by all owners by 
means of marine insurance. 

Measuring Losses. — The first step in insurance is to 
figure the probable losses. If that can be done the insurance 

193 



INSURANCE 



195 



plan is safe. If we can estimate the number of men who 
are going to suffer accidents and how long they are likely 
to be disabled, we can estimate what the cost would be to 
insure a thousand men in a given employment against 




© Underwood and Underwood 

In the Wake of a Flood 

Many lives were lost in this devastating flood that swept over Pueblo, 
Colorado in 1921. 



accidents. Likewise, if we can tell how many fires are 
likely to take place, we can fix the rates to be charged for 
fire insurance to cover the losses. Insurance companies 
keep accurate records and can tell from year to year what 
is likely to be the number of accidents, fires, deaths, bur- 
glaries, etc., andean fix the charges for insurance accordingly. 
Take a simple example: If a thousand men insure their 
buildings and only two buildings burn, valued at five thou- 
sand dollars, then it would cost the one thousand owners 



196 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

on an average of five dollars apiece. By an average 
payment of five dollars each one is assured that if his 
buildings burn his losses will be paid by the insurance 
company. 

Accident Insurance. — In nearly all the states, a plan 
of insurance against accidents is in force, under which the 
worker receives a part of his wages while he is disabled. A 
part or all of the cost of the doctor or hospital bills is also 
paid. This insurance covers accidents which take place 
while the person is employed. It does not cover accidents 
at other times. When one is injured in employments, where 
the men are insured, all that is needed to collect the insur- 
ance is to have the proper papers made out by the doctor, 
or by the employer. The plan varies in different states and 
every worker should know whether he is insured, and the 
conditions which govern the insurance. 

In most of the states, the payment of insurance in case of 
death is made to the man's family, even though the family 
is in another country. Every person should know his rights 
in this matter and should know the law of the state in which 
he is working. 

In the state where there is no system of accident insur- 
ance, the worker may collect damages from his employer 
in certain cases of accident suffered through the employer's 
fault. An employer will usually pay the damages if he is at 
fault. Most employers carry insurance against accidents 
to their workers and thus the loss is distributed. 

Health Insurance. — Health insurance or sickness in- 
surance is a plan of insurance by which a man upon pay- 
ment of a premium regularly may draw a part of his wages 
when he is sick and unable to work. There is no system 
of health insurance, conducted by any of the states of this 
country, under which the worker would receive part of his 



INSURANCE 197 

wages and the cost of medical care when sick as in case of 
accidents in industry. The idea of having workmen's 
heahh insurance on the same plan as workmen's accident 
insurance has been widely discussed but has not yet been 
adopted. At present the worker may carry health insur- 
ance in a fraternal order or insurance company. The pay 
when sick is usually $5.00 to $9.00 a week in these asso- 
ciations. The worker pays a small amount each week or 
month for this protection. 

The workers in some industries insure in mutual societies 
composed of the workers in a shop. Each pays a small 
sum per month and receives from the fund, made up 
from these monthly payments, a part of his wages when 
he is sick. Workers have in many trade unions a chance 
to insure in their own benefit fund for small payments 
each week. 

The loss from sickness is so great to a man who happens 
to be sick that every one should insure himself and his 
family. In this way the needs of life are assured while the 
sickness lasts. 

Life Insurance. — Every man should be certain of leaving 
enough money when he dies to pay for sickness and burial, 
and to leave some support for his wife and children. The 
best way to do this at present is by means of life insurance 
which may be carried in fraternal societies or insurance 
companies. By the payment of a small sum regularly, a 
certain sum is made payable at death. There are plans 
of insurance also by which a definite amount is paid 
to the widow or children every month for a certain length 
of time. 

The number of deaths can be accurately figured for 
large groups of people, and insurance companies can tell 
how much must be collected to pay the losses. 



1 98 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Some employers insure all of their employees as a group 
and upon the death of any employee a certain sum is paid 
to his dependents. 

Unemployment. — Some of the labor unions insure their 
own members against lack of employment. When a man 
cannot get a job at his trade, the union pays him a small 
sum each week until he finds work. Each member of 




© Underwood and Underwood 



Looking for Work 



A line of ex-service men applying for work at the Knights of Columbus 
Employment Hut, New York. The government as well as private 
agencies maintains employment offices. 



the union pays something regularly to make up the fund 
from which this insurance is paid. There is no plan for 
such insurance by the government. The government, 
however, does try to find work for people by means of 
public employment agencies. 



INSURANCE 199 

Old-age Insurance. — When a man grows old and cannot 
work longer he needs something to depend upon for 
support. He may have saved some money, and he may 
have children to support him. He is still better off if he 
has a certain amount of money payable to him every 
month as long as he lives. If he has that he need not worry 
in his old age. There is no old-age insurance or pension 
system in force in America as there is in Austraha and New 
Zealand and many of the countries of Europe, but plans 
are being considered in several states for such pensions. 
Some of the labor unions give their members an old-age 
pension from funds which all provide by regular payments. 
A few industries pay a pension to their old employees. 
Policemen, firemen, teachers, and soldiers usually receive 
a pension from the pubhc treasury when they are old or 

disabled. 

Fire Insurance. — The most common form of insurance 
is that against loss by fire. Nearly every owner of property 
keeps it insured against such loss. The calamity of fire 
is so plain to every one that special efforts are made to 
insure against it. This insurance is placed with com- 
panies which carry on the business for profit, and also 
with mutual companies in which the losses are shared by 
all without profit to any one. Farmers' mutuals are the 
most common forms of mutual insurance. 

Control of Insurance.— The business of insurance is of 
such importance that the people must see that it is run 
safely and honestly. The state governments, therefore, 
provide for departments of insurance which inspect com- 
panies to see that they are financially sound and conduct 
their business squarely, honestly, and with safety. It is 
highly important that the business be so conducted that 
the losses will be paid when they occur. Sound insurance 



200 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

has come to be the rule and it is only occasionally that 
insurance companies fail to pay losses. 

Questions for Review 

What is insurance? 

Show how by insurance we bear each others burdens. 

What calamities do we insure against? 

Why is it necessary to be able to measure losses before insurance is 
possible? 

Can we measure the probable losses from fires, accidents, disease, 
etc.? 

Is insurance merely guesswork? 

What is marine insurance? 

What is accident insurance? 

How is accident insurance provided in most of the states? 

What is health or sickness insurance? 

How is health insurance provided at present? 

What is life insurance? 

How is it possible to figure what life insurance will cost? 

What is unemployment insurance? 

How does the government help people to get work? 

What is old-age insurance? 

Why is old-age insurance desirable? 

What are insurance premiums? 

What classes of people are pensioned? 

What is fire insurance? 

How is insurance regulated? 

Do any people in your community receive old age pensions? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Find out all the kinds of insurance in use in your community. 

Secure sample policies of all kinds of insurance from insurance 
agents. 

Have insurance agents explain each kind of insurance. 

Find out how losses from fires, deaths, accidents, and disease are 
measured. 

Give details of the workmen's insurance act of your state. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

TAXATION 

We have seen that the work which our government does 
is for the common benefit. It takes a large amount of 
money to do all the things necessary for the welfare and 
protection of the people. The cost of roads and streets, 
education, health protection, police and fire protection, the 
army and navy, hospitals and asylums, is very heavy and 
the money must come from some source. The cost should 
be borne by the people. There is no one to pay the 
bills except the people themselves. No one else should pay 
the bills because it is the people's duty to do so. How is 
the money to be raised to meet all the expenses which we 
have? Clearly, it should be raised in such a way as to 
require every person to pay his fair share. The raising of 
the money to pay the cost of government is called taxation. 
Fair Taxation.— Taxes are collected to provide for the 
common good. Each person is in duty bound, therefore, 
to pay his fair share. Just taxation requires equaHty. All 
persons must be treated alike under the same circum- 
stances. We cannot permit inequahty of taxation without 
serious harm and injustice. 

How much should a person pay in taxes? Some have 
answered this question by saying that each person should 
pay according to the benefit which he receives. Others 
maintain that the person should be taxed according to his 
abihty to pay. The argument against the benefit theory 
is that benefits cannot be measured. We cannot for example 
measure exactly the good one receives from highways .or 



202 



THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 



police protection. Those who argue for taxation according 
to abihty to pay maintain that ability to pay is proportional 
to income. This proposition is denied on the ground that 
the receiver of a small income cannot pay as much in pro- 
portion to income as the receiver of the larger income. 
The most widely accepted idea to-day is the latter theory; 
namely, that ability to pay is the best basis, and that income 




© Underwood and Underwood 



Paying Taxes 



A line of tax payers waiting to pay income taxes at the office of the 
Collector of Internal Revenue. 



is the best measure of such abihty; and further, that the 
tax should increase according to the size of the income. 

Standards of Taxation. — An efhcient taxing system must 
produce revenue. The test of a taxing system is the ease 
with which money is collected. The failure to collect poll 
taxes has caused many people to disapprove that form of 



TAXATION 203 

taxation. Those who frame taxation laws are careful to see 
that the taxes they levy will bring money into the treasury. 

Taxes must be easily gathered without great expense. A 
system of taxation which would cost fifty per cent, merely 
for collection would be a bad system. Only fifty per cent 
of the total tax would go into the treasury; the rest would 
be used for the machinery of collection. 

Taxation must be definite. Every person needs to know 
exactly what he is to pay. This enables taxpayers to pro- 
vide for the means of paying the tax. Business men find 
this of great importance in planning their business. The 
taxpayer must know also the time and place of payment 
with certainty, so that he may have the money to pay the 
tax at the right time and at the right place. 

Poll Tax. — In nearly every state a special tax is placed 
upon every man over twenty-one years. This tax is called 
a poll tax — a head tax. It is usually small. As a matter of 
fact, only part of the people pay it. Almost everywhere it 
is found that this tax does not work very well because it is 
hard and costly to collect a small amount from each person. 
In some states, men must pay their poll tax before they are 
allowed to vote. The result is that frequently people do 
not vote rather than pay their tax. In some states each 
man is required to work a certain length of time on the 
highways every year in payment of his poll tax. 

Property Tax. — The most common form of tax in this 
country is the general property tax. This is a tax upcn 
the amount of the property one possesses. A tax of three 
dollars on the hundred would mean that a person having 
five thousand dollars' worth of property would be taxed 
$150. Those who have no property pay nothing directly, 
while those who have a large amount pay according to the 
amount which they possess. 



204 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

It should be clear, however, that the property tax does 
not always come from the man who pays it. If a man has 
ten thousand dollars' worth of houses, he usually figures 
the taxes in the rent, thus compelling his tenants to pay 
the tax. If he owns a store he adds the tax to the price of 
goods. Really, the tax upon property finally becomes a 
tax upon those who buy goods or rent property. The 
property tax has not worked well because people who have 
property that they can hide, such as notes, bonds, or jewels, 
escape taxation. Those who have land and buildings cannot 
escape because they cannot hide their property. Also, 
men who have some kind of movable property dishonestly 
take their property out of the state where they live at tax 
time, and the tax officers are not able to find it. 

Income Tax. — Almost every one believes that taxes 
should be paid by the people according to their abihty to 
pay. The abihty to pay generally depends upon the 
amount of income. A man who has no income cannot pay 
any taxes. A man who has an income only large enough to 
get a living cannot pay any tax without taking from him 
some of the means of hfe. As the income increases above 
the amount which is necessary for a living, a man can 
afford to pay more and more tax. The income tax, wherever 
it is used, generally does not tax the small incomes. It 
exempts enough for living expenses and then increases the 
tax as the income increases. For example: a man getting 
less than one thousand dollars a year is exempt; a man 
getting two thousand dollars a year may be taxed twenty 
dollars. A man getting twenty-five thousand dollars a year 
may be taxed two thousand five hundred dollars. A man 
who receives a million dollars a year may be taxed half 
or more of it. Almost everywhere the income tax is com- 
ing into use because it is easier to make each person pay 



TAXATION 



205 



his fair share of the cost by means of the income tax 
rather than the property tax. 

Inheritance Tax. — ^Another form of tax is the inheritance 
tax by which a part of the property that a man leaves 
when he dies is taken for pubKc use. This tax also increases 
as the amount which a man leaves increases. For example: 
when ten thousand dollars is left to an heir it may not be 




© Ewing Galloway 



The Custom House, New York 



In this beautiful building are the offices of the officials engaged in 
the collection of the tariff placed on goods imported into this country. 



taxed at all. If twenty thousand dollars is left, the tax 
may be fifty dollars; while if a million is left, the tax maybe 
half of the total bequest. There are many who beheve that 
large amounts of property should not be given at death, 
but that the tax should be high enough to take by taxation 



2o6 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

a large part of the large fortunes. The inheritance tax 
laws of the states and of the nation put that belief into 
practice. 

Tariff. — The tariff is a tax placed on goods brought into 
the country from a foreign land. This tax is usually 
fixed at a percentage of the value of the goods. Some 
goods are admitted free and some pay a high tax. This 
tax is added to the cost of the articles and we pay it 
when we buy the goods. 

Special Taxes. — The taxes about which we have been 
speaking are paid directly. There is another kind of tax 
which is not paid directly but which is added to the cost 
of goods used. There is a tax on tobacco which the manu- 
facturer or the dealer pays to the government. This tax is 
then charged in increased cost to the person who uses 
tobacco. The man who uses tobacco pays the tax indirectly. 
During the war almost everything was taxed in this way 
in order to raise the large sums of money which were 
needed for common use in carrying on the war. Most people 
pay this kind of tax without knowing it; but those who think 
about it believe that they would rather pay the tax directly 
and know just how much they are paying than to pay 
indirectly without being able to figure the amount. 

Proposed Taxation. — There are many other ideas regard- 
ing taxation. Many plans have been proposed for fairer 
systems of taxation, to the end that all persons may bear 
their fair share of the burden of government. One of the 
best known proposals is called the single tax, which would 
place all the tax on land but would not tax buildings and 
improvements. Under this tax, increases in land value 
would be taken as a tax because it is claimed that it is 
not the owner who makes the land increase in value, but 
the people who live in the community and make it prosper. 



SURE! 

We'll 
Finish 
the Job 




i/ICTDRY LIBERTY LOAN 



Courtesy of the U. S. Treasury Dept. 



A Liberty Loan Poster 

During the war the enlarged expenses were provided by loans to the 
government. In these everybody helped. Of the many striking 
posters none better illustrated the spirit of the people than this. 



2o8 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Another proposed reform is to classify property and charge 
each class a different rate according to its productivity. 

Bonds. — Sometimes it is a good policy for the people to 
borrow money rather than to try to collect all the money 
needed at once by taxation. When some permanent work 
is to be done, such as the building of waterworks, it is fair 
that the future generations shall pay some part of the cost 
of the work by which they are also going to benefit. Be- 
sides that, large sums of money needed for public works 
cannot always be raised at one time without putting too 
much cost upon the people. When money is borrowed by 
the people through their government, it is usually borrowed 
upon the people's notes which are called government bonds. 
A government bond is a promise on the part of the people 
to pay a certain sum of money at a certain time. It is not 
different from a note by which a man promises to pay a 
certain sum of money at a certain time. To pay the 
expenses of the war, the people of the United States sub- 
scribed for bonds to the amount of many billions of dollars. 
These bonds are popularly called Liberty Bonds. The ones 
who bought these bonds receive interest on the money 
loaned, and in a certain length of time the money is to be 
paid back. Such bonds are the best investment in the world. 

While it is a good poKcy to borrow money for the use of 
the people, it is not wise to borrow too much, nor to borrow 
for things which are not needed. The country should act 
in this matter just the same as a wise and prudent person 
would act, and borrow only for the things which are very 
important. The people will always provide for the pay- 
ment of the interest and the principal of their bonds on 
the date when they are due. It is good business to do so. 

Benefits of Taxation. — We sometimes think that we are 
compelled to pay too much money to support the govern- 



TAXATION 209 

ment and that taxes are increasing too fast. Of course, 
if the people do more things for themselves it is going to 
cost more money. If they want good roads, schools, and 
health agencies they must pay for them. The one question 
which should be asked is whether or not the things that 
are being done are such as the people approve, if they are 
things for which the people are willing to pay. All people 
approve good roads and streets, and are willing to pay the 
cost of making them just as fine as possible. All people 
approve of education, health protection, pohce and fire 
protection, libraries, armies and navies for defense, parks 
and playgrounds. If we approve these things, we must 
be willing to pay the cost for the benefits which they 
give us. There is no one to pay for these things except 
ourselves. The benefits are far greater than the cost in 
all these matters. How small, for example, is each 
person's payment for roads when compared with the 
benefits to him ! Great care should always be exercised to 
see that taxes are justly imposed and that each person 
pays his fair share. Nothing is more important than fair 
play and justice in imposing taxes. The man who escapes 
taxation is receiving benefits for which he does not pay and 
the one who pays more than his share is treated unjustly. 

Questions for Review 

What is taxation? Why is it necessary? ' 
Who pays taxes? 

Why should there be equality in taxation? 

How do we measure the amount which each should pay in taxes? 
Why is it hard to measure the benefits each receives from govern- 
ment? 

What do we mean by the abihty-to-pay theory of taxation? 
Why should the cost of collecting taxes be kept low? 
Why should taxation be definite? 
What is a poll tax? 



2IO THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Explain by examples the property tax. 
Explain the income tax. 

Why should small incomes be free from taxation? 
Explain the inheritance tax. 
Name as many special taxes as possible. 
What is a government bond? 
Why are government bonds good investments? 
Are we taxed too heavily? 

What government enterprises would you stop in order to reduce 
taxes? 

Questions tor Community Studies 

Make a complete list of all the kinds of taxes collected in your 
community. 

Work out examples of the property tax in your community. 
Work out examples of the income tax. 
Get sample copies of various tax blanks. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION 

The history of the world has been a continued story of 
the migrations of people from one country to another. 
In early times people went from country to country in large 
armies, setthng wherever they pleased, driving out the orig- 
inal inhabitants, or enslaving them. Wave after wave of 
people came out of Asia and settled successively in parts of 
Europe. In modern times we do not have the migrations 
of whole nations in a body, but we do have large numbers 
of people going from one country to settle or work in the 
territories of another country. The people of Europe 
migrate back and forth from country to country and large 
numbers leave their native lands for the United States, 
Canada, South America, Australia, and South Africa. 
These people migrate to better their condition. Some of 
them return to their native land, but the majority settle 
in their new home, raise families, and become a part of 
the country to which they have migrated. The United 
States has been a favored land for immigrants from 
Europe for more than a century and people from every 
country in Europe have settled from time to time in 
this country. In the earlier days, the Irish and the 
Germans came in large numbers. Later the Italians, 
Poles, Bohemians, Hungarians, Slavs, furnished millions of 
immigrants. 

Our Immigration Policy.— There are more than thirteen 
milHons of persons in this country who were born abroad. 
We can readily see from these figures that the United 



212 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

States is a country made up largely of new comers. A 
large percentage of the population are immigrants, or the 
children of immigrants, who have come to this country since 
1830. The people who leave a foreign country may continue 
to be the subjects of the country from which they come, 
or they may become citizens of the United States, and take 
their part with the native born in conducting the affairs of 




Keystone View Co., Inc. 

An Immigrant Family 

Thousands of immigrants pass through Ellis Island in New York 
harbor yearly. From there they go to all parts of the country. 

the country. The children of immigrants born in this country, 
of course, are citizens whether their fathers and mothers ever 
become citizens or not. The United States has kept its doors 
open for desirable immigrants and has offered a chance to 
all to become citizens of this country. The process by 
which they become citizens is called naturalization. 



IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION 213 



Naturalization. — The process of naturalization, together 
with the requirements and regulations for the admission of 
an immigrant to citizenship, may, at first glance, appear 
difficult because of the legal wording in which they are set 
forth. In fact, however, they are quite simple. 

The process of 
naturalization may 
be conveniently divi- 
ded into three steps : 
The first step, ^'The 
Declaration of In- 
tention"; the second 
step, ''The Petition 
for Naturahzation" ; 
the third step, "The 
Final Hearing in 
Open Court." 

First Step. — An 
alien who is eighteen 
years or over, and 
who desires to be- 
come a citizen of the 
United States, must 
go to the office of 
the clerk of the 
United States Dis- 
trict Court, or to 
any state court of 
record within the 
district or county 
where he lives. Upon request here, he will be given an 
official form or blank known as the ''First Paper," of the 
"Declaration of Intention to Become a Citizen." 




niHii^^iBi^ 



Courtesy of Knights of Columbus 

A Knights of Columbus Poster 

The war record of this great Catholic 
organization reflects credit upon the 
Catholics of the United States. 



214 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The request for the ''First Paper" may be made at any- 
time following the arrival of the alien in the United States. 
The applicant for the above papers is not required to know 
how to speak or read English or to write his own name. 
However, all applicants for the ''Final Paper" who have 




Press Illustrating Service, Inc. 

First Papers 

Future citizens filling out their declaration to become citizens — the 
first step toward citizenship. 



arrived in the United States since June 29, 1906, must be 
able to speak English and to sign their own names. The 
only requirement for taking out the "First Paper," or for 
making the "Declaration of Intention," is that the appli- 
cant shall take an oath that "it is his bona-fide intention 
to become a citizen of the United States." 

For the "First Paper," which must be filled out and left 



IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION 215 

with the clerk of the court, a fee of one dollar is collected. 
Later this paper is sent to the appKcant. 

The main facts to be stated in the ''Declaration of Inten- 
tion" are: name, age, occupation, date of arrival in the 
United States, name of the vessel on which the applicant 
arrived, and present address. The full, true name, and 
any other name or names used, or by which he was known, 
must be specified. 

Second Step.— To obtain his "Final Paper" or "Certif- 
icate of Naturalization," the applicant must have resided 
continuously in the United States for at least five years 
immediately preceding the date of his application, and for 
at least one year within the state or territory where he files 
his petition. 

The "Petition for Naturalization" may be made not less 
than two years nor more than seven years after the filling 
out of the "First Paper" or "Declaration of Intention." 
The applicant must go to the same court where he filed his 
"First Paper," or any court authorized to grant papers of 
naturahzation within the district wherein he has resided 
at least one year. He must appear in person, taking with 
him his "First Paper." In addition, he must have two 
witnesses who are citizens of the United States, and they 
must be ready to take oath that they have known the 
appHcant for at least five years in the United States, and to 
testify as to his fitness for citizenship. 

Any one arriving in the United States after June 29, 1906, 
cannot petition for naturalization without a "Certificate 
of Arrival," duly executed. This certificate contains 
chiefly the name, age, date of arrival, name of ship on which 
ahen arrived, and last place of residence. This form may be 
secured upon appHcation from the office of the county clerk. 
It should be filled in and handed with the petition to the clerk . 



2i6 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

The petitioner and his witnesses will then be questioned 
by the naturalization examiner, and if the "Petition" is 
accepted by the clerk, the petitioner is furnished with a 
certificate showing the number of his application as filed 
with the court. 

The fee for the ''Second Paper" is four dollars. 



© Press lUustrating Service, Inc. 

The Final Step 

A new citizen taking the oath of allegiance to the United States 
of America. 



Third Step. — Not less than ninety days after the filing 
of the ''Petition," during which a thorough investigation 
of both applicant and his witnesses is made, the court will 
summon the applicant and his witnesses to appear before 



IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION 217 

the judge in open court. Here he must publicly satisfy 
the court that he is of good moral character, and qualified 
to become a citizen of the United States. He must be able 
to answer intelligently any question which the court may 
put to him to test his general knowledge of the laws and 
government of the United States. There is no definite 
outline of the knowledge required by the applicant, nor any 
uniformity in the questions likely to be asked him. Usually 
the court is satisfied if the applicant is able to answer very 
general questions showing that he understands the main 
privileges conferred on him by naturalization, and that he 
knows the more important points of American history and 
the government of the United States. 

If the applicant satisfies the court of his fitness for citizen- 
ship, he is required to take the oath of allegiance to the 
United States. The court will order a ''Certificate of 
Citizenship" to be issued. This the applicant must sign, 
receiving it immediately, or in some cases by registered 
mail. 

In addition to the foregoing rules and requirements for 
naturalization the following are especially noteworthy: 

1. If witnesses called are naturalized citizens, they must 
have their ''Naturalization Certificate" when appearing 
before court. 

2. In case of sickness, or other cause of disability 
of witnesses, others may be substituted, provided they 
can take oath to the same statements as the original 
witnesses. 

3. The witnesses are required by law to be present. 

4. If appHcant has not lived in present state for five years 
he may furnish affidavits from witnesses in other state or 
states in which he has lived, and the witnesses collectively 
must have known him for at least five years. 



2i8 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

5. Lost papers may be duplicated on the sworn statement 
of the apphcant. 

6. No apphcant can receive his citizenship certificate 
within thirty days of general elections in any state. 

7. The applicant may change his name with the per- 
mission of the court, if he does it at the time of admittance 
to citizenship. 

8. Applicants for citizenship holding a foreign title must 
legally renounce such title before becoming citizens. 

9. If a married alien who has taken out his " First Paper " 
should die before he becomes naturalized, his widow and 
children may complete the naturalization. 

10. Women, if single, widowed or divorced, may apply 
for citizenship. The wife of an alien cannot be naturalized 
by herself during the lifetime of her husband. 

11. Should the applicant be refused naturalization 
papers, he cannot recover any fees paid in. 

12. There is a very severe penalty for false statements 
and papers secured by fraud. 

13. No one opposed to organized government can become 
a citizen of the United States. 

14. No one who believes in polygamy, or who is a crim- 
inal, or an illiterate, can become a citizen of the United 
States. 

15. No alien or foreigner can be admitted to citizenship 
while the United States is at war with the country of which 
he is a subject. 

16. Only free white persons and those of African nativity 
or African descent may be naturalized. However, any 
alien, other than a Chinese person, who can prove that he is 
a white person, may petition for citizenship. 

17. The naturalization of an alien naturalizes his wife, 
and such of his children as are under twenty-one at the time 



IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION 219 

of his naturalization. Any American woman who marries 
a foreigner loses her citizenship and takes the nationality of 
her husband. 

18. Any children who may be abroad at the time of nat- 
uralization of their parents become citizens by this natur- 
ahzation, providing they take up residence in the United 
States before becoming twenty-one years of age. 

19. Special dispensation from making Declaration of 
Intention and from complying with minor requirements are 
made for men who have completed an enlistment in the 
United States Navy, Marine Corps, or Army. 

20. Any alien seaman, who, after having declared his 
intention, serves three years on board a United States 
merchant vessel, may petition for naturahzation upon pro- 
duction of his certificate of discharge and good conduct 
during that time, thereby relieving him from proof of any 
further residence. 

Questions for Review 

In early times why did people migrate in large armies? 

Why do people migrate in our own day? 

Why has the United States been a favored land for immigrants from 
Europe? 

Why have the different nationalities migrated to the United States 
at different periods? 

Who are the citizens of the United States? 

Who may become citizens of the United States by naturalization? 

What are the three steps in the process of naturalization? 

Describe the process of making "The Declaration of Intention." 

When may application be made for the "Certificate of Naturaliza- 
tion"? 

What is the "Certificate of Arrival"? 

What evidence of fitness for citizenship must an applicant give the 
court? 

Do you think it is necessary for the court to investigate the charac- 
ter of the applicant and his witnesses? 



220 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Describe the final process in naturalization of an applicant for 
citizenship. 

What does the oath of allegiance require of an applicant? 

What are the qualifications for witnesses to a Petition for Citizen- 
ship? 

If an applicant has not resided continuously for fiveyears in a state, 
can he secure his citizenship papers? How? 

Name two other conditions which limit the granting of citizenship 
papers. 

Under what conditions may a woman become a citizen? 

How do children who come to America before they are twenty-one 
become citizens? 

What may prevent an applicant from becoming a citizen? 

Are special privileges in securing citizenship ever given? Why? 

Questions for Community Studies 

Secure copies of all forms used in naturalization. 
Secure from the Census Bureau at Washington the figures about 
the foreign born in your state. 



APPENDIX 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

In Congress, July 4, i/yd 

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of 

America, 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the poHtical bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God 
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires 
that they should *declare the causes which impel them to the separa- 
tion. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Hap- 
piness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among 
Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. 
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of 
these ends it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to 
institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles 
and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most 
likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will 
dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for 
light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath 
shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are suffer- 
able, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they 
are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, 
pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them 
under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw 
off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future 
security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; 
and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their 
former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of 

221 



22 2 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all 
having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny 
over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid 
world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- 
comfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his 
measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing 
with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of 
Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; 
the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of 
invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for 
that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and 
raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his 
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms 
of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without 
the Consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior 
to the Civil Power. 



APPENDIX 



223 



He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his 
Assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any 
Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: 

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring 
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and en- 
larging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit 
instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, 
and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: 

For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves 
invested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his 
Protection and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled 
in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a 
civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high 
Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- 
oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian 
Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruc- 
tion of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress 
in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked 
by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a 
free People. 



224 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legis- 
lature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have 
reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement 
here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and 
we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow 
these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice 
and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, 
which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest 
of mankind. Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, 
in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of 
the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by 
Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare. That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be 
Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Alle- 
giance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between 
them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dis- 
solved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full 
Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish 
Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent 
States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with 
a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually 
pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 



APPENDIX 225 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

[Preamble] 
We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

[Legislative Department] 

Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested 
in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate 
and House of Representatives. 

Section 2. i. The House of Representatives shall be composed 
of members chosen every second year by the people of the several 
States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications 
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legis- 
lature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained 
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of 
that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes ^ shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, ac- 
cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by 
adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three 
fifths of all other persons.^ The actual enumeration shall be made 
within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in 
such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representa- 
tives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration 
shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 
three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 
one, Connecticut five. New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania 

iSee the i6th Amendment. 

2 Partly superseded by the 14th Amendment. 



226 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, 
South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and 
other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section 3. i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, 
for six years; and each senator shall have one vote.^ 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration 
of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth 
year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if 
vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of 
the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make tempo- 
rary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which 
shall then fill such vacancies.^ 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of 
the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president 
pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall 
exercise the office of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice 
shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the con- 
currence of two thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party 

^See the 17th Amendment. 



APPENDIX 227 

convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment and punishment, according to law. 

Section 4. i. The times, places, and manner of holding elections 
for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law 
make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing 
senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall 
by law appoint a different day. 

Section 5. i. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, 
returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of 
each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number 
may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penal- 
ties as each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish 
its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two 
thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of 
either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those 
present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to 
any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. i. The senators and representatives shall receive a 
compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out 
of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and 
in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or de- 
bate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- 
ments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no 



228 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

person holding any office under the United States shall be a member 
of either House during his continuance in office. 

Section 7. i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the 
President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if 
not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 
journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration 
two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, 
together with the objections, to the other House, by whiqh it shall 
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, 
it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses 
shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons 
voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each 
House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- 
dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pre- 
sented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had 
signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its re- 
turn, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules 
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Section 8. i. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all 
duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 



APPENDIX 



229 



5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post offices and post roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing 
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service 
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia accord- 
ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat 
of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority 
over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section 9. i. The migration or importation of such persons as 
any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not 



230 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importa- 
tion, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
taken.i 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall 
vessels bound to, or from, one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account 
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published 
from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and 
no person holding any ofhce of profit or trust under them, shall, with- 
out the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, 
office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign 
State. 

Section 10. i. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or 
confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money, 
emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender 
in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, 
or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title 
of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of 
all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall 
be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws 
shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty 

^ See the i6th Amendment. 



APPENDIX 231 

of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into 
any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

- [Executive Department] 

Section i. i. The executive power shdll be vested in a President 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the 
term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen 
for the same term, be elected, as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number 
of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled 
in the Congress: but no senator or representative, or person holding 
an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an elector. 

^The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 
of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all 
the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which 
list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the president of the 
Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Sen- 
ate and House of Representatives, open all the certificate?, and the 
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number 
of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one 
who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then 
the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot 
one of them for President; and if no person have a majority then 
from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner 
choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall 
be taken by States, the representation from each State having one 
vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall 
be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the Presi- 
iThe following paragraph was in force only from 1788 to 1803. 



232 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

dent, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors 
shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more 
who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot 
the Vice President. ^ 

3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be 
the same throughout the United States. 

4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be 
eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible 
to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five 
years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of 
the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the 
Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna- 
tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring 
what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act 
accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be 
elected. 

6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
the period for which be shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United 
States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend 
the Constitution of the United States. " 

Section 2. i. The President shall be commander in chief of the 
army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he 
may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each 
of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties 
of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of 
impeachment. 

1 Superseded by the 12th Amendment. 



nl 



APPENDIX 233 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and 
consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but. 
the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of 
law, or in the heads of departments. 

3, The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section 3. i. He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient;, 
he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the 
time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; 
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall com- 
mission all the officers of the United States. 

Section 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, 
and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde- 
meanors. 

ARTICLE III 
[Judicial Department] 

Section i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of 
the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a 
compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance 
in office. 

Section 2. i. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their author- 



234 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

ity; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; — to 
controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to con- 
troversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizen 
of another State; — between citizens of different States, — between ^ 
citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different 
States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, 
citizens or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall he party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned 
the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law 
and to fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the 
Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be 
by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes 
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any 
State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may 
by law have directed. 

Section 3. i. Treason against the United States, shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, 
giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason 
unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on 
confession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, 
or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

[Return of Escaped Slaves; New States, Territories] 
Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to 

the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. 

And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which 

such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 

thereof. 

Section 2. i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 

privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

^See the nth Amendment. 



APPENDIX 235 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction 
of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall 
be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor 
may be due. 

SECTION3. I. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within 
the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the 
junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent 
of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

2, The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property 
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or 
of any particular State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in 
this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each 
of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or 
of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against 
domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 
[Provisions for Amendments] 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, 
shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution 
when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that 
no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth 
clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, 



236 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

[Public Debts; Supremacy of the Constitution] 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which 
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the 
supreme law of the land; and the Judges in every State shall be 
bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to 
the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
cial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no 
religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or 
public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

[Ratification] 
The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so 
ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present 
the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one 
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence 
of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof 
we have hereunto subscribed our names, 

Go: Washington — 
Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia 
(and thirty-eight members from all the states except Rhode Island.) 



Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the 
United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by 
the legislatures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article 
of the original Constitution. 



APPENDIX 



237 



[The Right of Persons] 
ARTICLE 1 1 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to as- 
semble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 

A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be in- 
fringed. 

ARTICLE III 

No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place 
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise in- 
famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war or public danger; jior shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public 
use without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shalf have been committed, which district shall 
iThe first ten Amendments were adopted in 1791. 



238 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the 
nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in 
his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall ex- 
ceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and 
no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of 
the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X 

[The Rights of States] 
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI 1 

[Suits against States] 
The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens 
or subjects of any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII 2 

[Change in Electoral System] 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 

for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 

an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in 

their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots, 

^Adopted in 1798. 

2 Adopted in 1804. 



APPENDIX 239 

the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as 
Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they 
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; — 
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted; — The person having the greatest number of votes 
for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a Presi- 
dent whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disa- 
bility of the President. The person having the greatest number 
of votes as Vice President shall be the Vice President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no 
person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers of the 
list, the Senate shall choose the Vice President; a quorum for the 
purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, 
and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 
But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President 
shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII 1 

[Slavery Prohibited] 
Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to 
their jurisdiction. 

1 Adopted in 1865. 



240 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 1 

[Who Are Citizens] 

1. All persons bom or naturalized in the United States, and subject 
to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

[Apportionment of Representatives and the Suffrage] 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the 
right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
and Vice President of the United States, representatives in Congress, 
the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United 
States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, 
or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in 
the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to 
the whole number of male citizens twenty-one yearsof age in such State. 

{Exclusion of Certain Persons from Office] 

3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or 
elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or 
mihtary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having 
previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of 
the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an 
executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution 
of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. 
But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each House, remove 
such disability. 

1 AdoDted in 1868. 



APPENDIX 241 

[Union and Confederate Debts] 

4. The validity of the pubhc debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be 
questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume 
or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or re- 
bellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emanci- 
pation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall 
be held illegal and void. 

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 1 

[Rtght to Vote] 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied, or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI 2 

[Income Tax] 
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect on taxes on in- 
comes, from whatever source derived. Without apportionment among 
the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII 3 

[Popular Election of Senators] 
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of 
the State legislature. 

1 Adopted in 1870. 

2 Passed July, 1909; proclaimed February 25, 1913. 

3 Passed May, 191 2, in Heu of paragraph one. Section 3, Article I, 
of the Constitution and so much of paragraph two of the same Section 
as relates to the filling of vacancies; proclaimed May 31, 1913- 



242 THE CATHOLIC CITIZEN 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the 
Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of elec- 
tion to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State 
may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments 
until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may 
direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII 1 

Section i. After one year 'from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, 
the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the 
United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for 
beverage purposes, is hereby prohibited. 

Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have con- 
current power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of 
the several States, as provided by the Constitution, within seven 
years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the 
Congress. 

ARTICLE XIX 2 

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account 
of sex. 

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

^Passed both houses of Congress, December, 191 7; ratified by the 
required number of states on January 16, 1919, and proclaimed to 
take effect January 16, 1920. 

2 Ratified August 26, 1920, 



BOOKS FOR COMPARATIVE STUDY 

Ashley — The New Civics; The Macmillan Company. 

Beaed and Beard — American Citizenship; The Macmillari Company. 

Hughes — Community Civics; AUyn and Bacon. 

Lapp — Our America: Elements of Civics; Bobbs-Merrill Company. 
Economics in the Community; Century Company. 

Dunn — The Community and the Citizen; D. C. Heath and Company. 

The following pamphlets issued by the National Catholic Welfare 
Council: Fundamentals of Citizenship, Civics Catechism, The Pas- 
toral Letter, Social Reconstruction. 



INDEX 



Accidents, prevention of, io8. 
Agriculture, Secretary of, 60; see 

Rural problems. 
Airplane, transportation, 164. 
Ambassadors, 72, 73. 
Arbitration, with foreign countries, 

74, 75; industrial, 173. 
Army, 78-82. 
Attorney General, United States, 

60; state, 61. 
Auditor, state, 61. 

Bank, checks, 186-187; commission- 
er, 61; deposits, 186; drafts, 187; 
loans and discounts, 188; reserves, 

189, 190; supervision, 191. 
Banking, fraudulent, 128. 

Banks, kinds of, 190; transfer of 

money by, 188. 
Barter, 179, 180. 
Birds, protection of, 142. 
Building and loan associations, 134. 

Cabinet, 60. 

Capital, and labor, 169-177. 

Carnegie, Andrew, 9. 

Census Bureau, 60. 

Charity, modern, 116; need for, 

111-117; scope of. III, 112. 
Checks, bank, 186, 187; travelers', 

190, 191. 

Citizens, duties of, 84-88; civic in- 
telligence, 85, 86; office holding, 
86, 87; paying the cost, 87, 88. 

City, officers, 1 51-159; problems: 
city beautiful, 158, 159; housing, 

156, 157; protection of people, 

157, 158; public ownership, 155, 
156; railroads and terminals, 154, 
155; street railways, 153; streets, 
153; transportation, 153, i54._ 

Civil service, 46, 47; Commission, 

61. 
Coal, saving of, 136, 137. 
Closed shop, 172, 173. 
Commerce, Secretary of, 60. 



Community, i. 

Congress, 52. 

Conservation, see Natural resources. 

Constitution, of the United States, 
27; amendments to, 29; formation 
of, 27; text of. Appendix. 

Consuls, 73,_ 74. 

Copper, saving of, 139. 

Council, city, 49, 50. 

Courts, and crime, 65; and fair play, 
69; kinds of, 66-69. 

Crime, and punishment, 1 18-124. 

Debt, imprisonment for, 35. 

Declaration of Independence, Ap- 
pendix. 

Defense, Catholics and, 77, 78; 
national, 77. 

Delinquency, and correction, 118- 
124; of children, 120 

Discriminations, 126, 127. 

Disease, prevention of, 102, 103. 

Education, 91-101; Catholic, 91-93- 
97-101; compulsory, 97, 98; col- 
leges, 93, 94; elementary 93, 95; 
high schools, 93, 94; libraries, 96, 
97; public and private, 91, 92; 
state superintendent of, 61; voca- 
tional, 95-96. 

Elections, corrupt practices in, 43- 
45; majority and plurality, 43; 
presidential, 42-43. 

Executive department, 56-58; of 
the United States, 58-59; state, 
61, 62; city, 62. 

Fair play, 7-8; and criminals, 11; 
and dependents, 11, 12; and 
government, 88; and sports, 8-9. 

Family, i. 

Farm Loan Board, 61. 

Federal Reserve Board, 60. 

Federal Trade Commission, 61. 

Fish, protection of, 142. 



245 



246 



INDEX 



Food, adulteration of, 127, 128; 

supply, sanitation of, 105. 
Foreign, relations, 71; ambassadors, 

72, 73; arbitration, 74, 75; consuls, 

12>, 74- 
Free speech, ^,7,. 

Game, protection of, 142. 

Gibbons, Cardinal, 9, 45, 131, 132. 

Government, American, 25-30; 28, 29; 

defined, 2-3; explanation of, 3-4; 

local organization of, 25, 26. 

Health, protection, 102-110; acci- 
dents, 108; drinking cups and 
towels, 107, 108; flies and mosqui- 
toes, 107; how managed, 109, no; 
milk and food supply, 105; 
necessity of, 108, 109; water 
supply, 105. 

Highways, 161, 162; management 
of, 166, 167. 

Housing, 156, 157. 

Human resources, protection of, 
142, 143. 

Immigration, 211. 

Imprisonment, false, 35; for debt, 35. 
Individuals, i; duties of, 3-5. 
Insurance, 193-200; accident, 196; 

control of, 199, 200; fire, 199; 

fraudulent, 128; health, 196, 197; 

hfe, 197, 198; measurement of 

losses, 193, 194; old age, 199; 

unemployment, 198. 
Interior, Secretary of, 60. 
Interstate Commerce Commission, 

60. 
Iron, saving of, 153. 

Jury, trial by, 36, 37, 65, 66. 
Justice, 7. 

Labor, and capital, 169-177; health 
and safety of, 171, 172; hours of, 
171; participation in manage- 
ment, 176, 177; Secretary of, 60; 
State Department of, 61; unions, 
170. 

Laws, city, 49, 50; equality of, 49; 
justice and fair play, 54; making 
of, 48-55; national, 52; reasons 
for, 48, 49; state, 51, 52. 



Legislature, state, 51, 52. 
Libraries, 96, 97. 
Lincoln, Abraham, 9, 

Mayor, 62. 

Mclntyre, Rt. Rev. Bishop, 84. 

Mediation, industrial, 174. 

Military, organization, 78-80; dicta- 
tion of, 79-81; volunteers, 78-80, 

Milk, supply, sanitation of, 105. 

Minerals, saving of, 136-139. 

Money, 179-184; coinage of, 184; 
gold and silver, 181, 182; mediums 
of exchange, 179, 180; national 
matter, 183, 184; of the United 
States, 182; sound, 182, 183; 
Substances used for, 180. 

Monopoly, 125, 126. 

Municipal, see City. 

Nation, powers of, 27. 

National Guard, 80. 

National resources, saving of, 136- 

143- 
Naturalization, 21 1-2 19; first papers 

213-215; final step, 216-219; 

process of, 212-219; second step, 

215, 216. 
Navy, 80; Secretary of, 60. 
Nomination, 42. 

Old age, dependent, 113, 114; in- 
surance, 199. 
Open shop, 172, 173. 

Parole, 121, 122. 

Parties, political, 41, 42. 

Pastoral Letter, 39, 45, 46, 54, 71, 
72, 77, 92, 93, 97, 98, 99, 100, in, 
112, 170, 173, 176, 177. 

Petroleum, saving of, 138, 139. 

Postal, service, 164, 165; savings 
banks, 133. 

Postmaster General, 60. 

Poverty, causes of, 11 2-1 15; pre- 
vention of, 116. 

Practices, corrupt, 44-46. 

President, 58-60. 

Prisoners, humane treatment of, 122. 

^Prisons, 120-123; federal, 122, 123; 
state, 122, 123. 

Probation, 121, 122. 

Property, protection of, 34, 35. 



INDEX 



247 



Profit sharing, 175, 176. 

Public ofi&cers, appointment of, 46; 

choosing of, 39; civil service, 47, 

48; removal of, 62, 63. 
Public ownership, 155, 156. 
Public Service Commission, 61. 

Railroads, 162, 163. 

Reformatories, 120. 

Religious, freedom, 33, 34. 

Representatives, definition, 21; du- 
ties of, 23; kinds of, 20, 21; selec- 
tion, 21, 22. 

Rights, of people, 32, 33. 

Roads, 161, 162. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 44, 84, 85, 

Rural problems, 145-150; agricul- 
tural colleges, 147, 148; experi- 
ment stations, 148; extension 
work, 148; financing the farm, 
149; good roads, 148; govern- 
ment and, 147; marketing prod- 
ucts, 149, 150; trend from country, 
145, 146. 

Savings, banks for, 133; building 
and loan associations, 134; in- 
vestment of, 134, 135; postal 
savings banks, 133; protection of, 
132; school bank, 132, 133; thrift 
stamps, 134; and thrift, 131-135. 

Schools, see Education. 

Search, freedom from, 34. 

Sickness, 112. 

Soils, preserving of, 141, 142. 

State, Secretary of, 60. 

States, and the nation, 29, 30; 
government, 28; powers of, 27. 



Streets, 153. 

Strikes, and lockouts, 173. 

Taxation, 201-209; benefits of, 208, 
209; bonds, 208; fairness in, 201, 
202 ; income, 204, 205 ; inheritance, 
205, 206; poll, 203; property, 203, 
204; proposed changes in, 206, 
207; standards of, 202, 203; 
special forms of, 206; tariff, 206. 

Telegraph, 166. 

Telephone, 166. 

Thrift, and the community, 132; 
reasons for, 131; and savings, 
i3i~i35; stamps, 134, wise and 
unwise, 132. 

Transportation, 161-167; airplane, 
164; city, 153-156; highway, 161, 
162; public management, 166, 
167; railroads, 162, 163; water- 
ways, 163, 164. 

Treasurer, state, 61. 

Treasury, Secretary of, 60. 

Unemployment, 112, 113, 174, 175. 

Vice, and poverty, 115. 

Vice President, 58. 

Voting, duty of, 85; right of, 39, 40. 

Wages, 170, 171. 

War, Secretary of, 60. 

Washington, George, 27, 

Water, supply, 105. 

Waterways, 163, 164. 

Weather Bureau, 60. 

Weights, and measures, false, 127. 

Wood, saving of, 139, 140. 



